COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  CONTRIBUTIONS 


TO 

PHILOSOPHY,  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION 


VoL.  T 


No.  3 
••  f 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


BY 

WILLIAM  I.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Ph.D. 

President  of  Vellore  College,  India 


LAI  15 1 
C44 


November,  1899 

The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
Mayer  and  Muller,  Markgrafenstrasse,  Berlin 


Price  75  cents 


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3 

EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  CONTRIBUTIONS 


TO 

PHILOSOPHY,  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION 
VOL.  T No.  3 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


WILLIAM  I.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Ph.D. 

President  of  Vellore  College,  India 


November,  1899 

The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
Mayer  and  Muller,  IMarkorafenstrasse,  Berlin 

Price  75  cents 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/educationinindiaOOcham 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

INTRODUCTORY 
CHAPTER  I 

PAOB 

Civilization  and  Moral  Conceptions. 

1.  Religious  Ideals  and  Education lo 

2.  Ancient  Writings  of  India lo 

3.  Governing  Idea — Brahmanism 1 1 

4.  External  Influences 13 

a.  Buddhism 14 

b.  Muhammadanism  14 

CHAPTER  II 

Indigenous  Education. 

1.  Learning  in  Earliest  Times 17 

2.  Government  Inquiries 17 

3.  Character  of  Indigenous  Schools 20 

4.  Summary 23 


PART  II 

EDUCATION  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE 

CHAPTER  I 

A.  History  and  Development. 

First  Period^  1^06-1823. 

1.  Early  Missionary  Schools 27 

2.  Their  Character  and  Service  to  Education  .....  29 

3.  First  Government  Attempts 29 

(V) 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  II 

PAGE 

History  {Continued), 

Second  Period^  1823-1854. 

1.  Educational  Reform 30 

2.  Committees  of  Public  Instruction 31 

3.  Labors  of  Dr.  Alexander  Duff 32 

4.  Controversy — Orientalists  and  Anglicists 33 

5.  Lord  Macaulay’s  Minute 35 

6.  Lord  Bentinck’s  Proclamation 37 

7.  Controversy — Vernacularists  and  Anglicists 38 

8.  Mr.  Thomasen  and  Village  Schools 40 

9.  Missionary  Education ' 40 

10.  Summary  of  the  Period 41 

CHAPTER  HI 

History  {Continued). 

Third  Period^  1854-1882. 

1.  Lords’  Committee  of  Inquiry 42 

2.  Court  of  Directors’ Despatch  of  1854 42 

3.  The  Despatch  of  1859 46 

4.  Other  State  Despatches 47 

5.  Educational  Revenues 48 

6.  Grants-in-Aid 49 

7.  The  Universities 50 

8.  Collegiate  Education 54 

9.  Secondary  Education 56. 

10.  Primary  Education  57 

11.  Classification  of  Schools  and  Colleges  .......  59 

12.  Indigenous  Schools  60 

13.  Missionary  Education 61 

14.  Special  Education 62 

15.  Conclusion 64 


CONI  ENTS 


Vll 


189J 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAGE 

History  {Concluded'). 

Fourth  Period,  i882-i8q8. 

1.  Discontent  with  Administration  of  the  System  ....  66 

2.  Missionary  Representations 67 

3.  General  Council  on  Education  in  India 67 

4.  Appointment  of  Education  Commission  of  1882  ...  69 

5.  Proceedings  of  Commission 70 

6.  Recommendations  of  Commission 70 

7.  Action  of  Government 74 

8.  Tables  illustrating  Progress  during  Period 75 

CHAPTER  V 

B.  Present  Condition  of  Education  in  India. 

1.  Steps  leading  to  Establishment  of  Present  System  . . 76 

2.  Organization  of  the  System 77 

3.  Administration  of  the  System  78 

4.  General  Statistics 79 

a.  Number  and  Attendance 80 

b.  Expenditure 81 

c.  Special  Education 82 

d.  Examinations  83 

CHAPTER  VI 

C.  Problems  of  N ational  Development. 

1.  English  Education  and  Indian  Culture 86 

2.  European  and  Oriental  Learning 94 

3.  Moral  Training  and  Religious  Instruction 98 

4.  Questions  of  Indian  Administration 104 

5.  Conclusion 105 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


PART  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER  I 

It  might,  perhaps,  be  thought  natural  to  introduce  the 
treatment  of  the  subject  of  this  paper  with  a consideration  of 
the  country,  the  civilization,  and  the  religions  of  the  Hindus, 
all  of  which  are  so  closely  allied  to  a study  of  education  in 
India.  But  the  necessity  for  such  preliminary  discussion  is 
not  so  apparent  when  we  remember  the  availability,  at  the 
present  day,  of  information  with  regard  to  the  life  and  the 
civilization  of  people  inhabiting  the  most  distant  portions  of 
the  earth,  the  large  place  which  the  English  language  and 
literature  are  now  occupying  in  the  changing  civilization  of 
the  Orient,  and  the  predominance  of  Eastern  questions  in  the 
rapidly  developing  history  of  our  time,  so  largely  recorded 
in  our  own  language. 

quite  impossible,  however,  to  give  anything 
Conceptions,  approaching  to  a correct  view  of  what  constitutes 
the  education  of  a people,  without  first  putting  before  us  an 
outline,  at  least,  of  that  people’s  civilization ; and  civilization 
resolves  itself,  for  educational  purposes,  into  the  religious 
and  moral  conceptions  of  a nation,  and  its  consequent  social 
and  political  organizations. 

(^To  treat  of  the  characteristics  of  a nation’s  life  in  detail  is 
191]  9 


o 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


quite  foreign  to  our  purpose,  and  would  tend  to  obscure  the 
precise  object  of  the  educational  historian.  What  chiefly 
concerns  us,  as  students  of  the  education  of  a people  with- 
out specific  educational  institutions,  is  to  bring  into  view  the 
religious  idea,  as  the  ultimate  expression  of  the  national  life, 
avoiding,  at  the  same  time,  the  temptation  to  linger  over  the 
country  and  people.^ 

The  Religious  What  is  ti'ue  of  the  development  of  the  Ger- 


system  of  India  in  past  centuries : the  clue  must  be  found 
in  the  religious  ideals,  as  tempered  by  prevailing  social  and 
^ political  influences^;  Indeed,  it  has  always  been  true  that  the 
presence  of  a dominant  force  in  the  life  of  a nation  is  seen  to 
bring  about  some  change  in  the  educational  system,  making 
for  the  permanence  of  the  existing  ideals,  or  their  expulsion, 
according  to  the  aims  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement.  And 
never  have  forces  been  found  so  dominant,  or  so  calculated 
to  take  a deep  hold  upon  the  life  of  a people,  as  these  con- 
ditioned religious  ideals. 

This  preliminary  recognition  of  the  religious  element 
among  a given  people  must,  of  necessity,  be  followed  by  a 
fuller  statement  of  the  means  which  the  State  has,  more  or 
less  consciously,  adopted  to  bring  up  its  children  with  a view 
to  maintaining  its  ideals  and  its  national  life,  in  so  far  as  its 
records  make  this  possible. 

Civilization  of  earliest  civilization  of  India  may  be  em- 

india.  braced  within  2000  to  1400  B.  C.,  the  period  'of 
tradition  and  of  primitive  Aryan  survivals. 

Whitney  says  that  all  dates  set  up  in  Indian  literary  his- 
tory are  pins  set  up  to  be  bowled  down  again."  A liberal 
margin  of  possible  error  must  be  allowed  in  the  assumption 
of  any  specific  dates.  For  none  of  the  Indian  religious 


Ideals,  Clue  to 
Educational 
System. 


man  school  system,  in  more  recent  times,  is 
also  true  of  the  developing  of  the  educational 


1 Whitney,  A SansEIt  Grammar.  Introduction,  p.  19. 


INTRODUCTORY 


II 


193] 

works  have  we  a certain  date.  Nor  is  there  for  any  one  of 
the  earlier  compositions  the  certainty  that  it  belongs,  as  a 
whole,  to  any  one  time.  They  are  the  gleanings  of  the  cen- 
turies. The  general  compass  of  the  enormous  literature  of 
India  is  from  an  indefinite  antiquity  to  about  1500  A.  D. 
The  weight  of  scholarship  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  provision- 
ally assuming  2000  B.  C.  as  the  starting  point  of  Hindu 
literature.^ 

Writings.  The  writings  which  embody  the  intellectual  and 
moral  faiths  of  the  Hindus  are : 

A.  The  Vedas,  consisting  of  prayers  and  praise  and  ritual- 
istic precepts,  dating  perhaps  about  1200  B.  C.,  although 
there  is  good  authority  for  a much  earlier  date. 

B.  The  Upanishads,  or  the  secret  doctrine,  written  in 
prose,  and  largely  of  the  nature  of  commentaries  on  the 
Vedas. 

C.  The  Code  of  Mann,  a collection  of  traditionary  usages 
and  customs,  of  a social,  domestic,  and  political  character, 
and  abounding  in  excellent  moral  precepts,  dating  from 
about  300  B.  C.  to  100  B.  C.^ 

In  addition  to  these,  we  find  a Literature,  in  the  modern 
sense.  The  tales  of  heroes,  which  were,  originally,  tradi- 
tional, reached  a literary  form  in  the  great  epics,  which  have 
reference  to  an  early  state  of  society;  but  they  took  their 
present  form  in,  perhaps,  300  B.  C.  and  100  B.  C.3 

These  are : 

D.  The  Ramayana,  which  presents,  in  a continuous  story, 
a high  type  of  human  life. 

E.  The  Mahabharata,  which  has  been  called  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  tradition. 

^ Hopkins,  Religions  of  India.  Introduction,  p.  3.  Shroeder,  Indians  Litera 
tur  und  Cultur. 

^Lanman,  A Sanskrit  Reader.  Notes,  p.  345. 

^Hopkins,  Indian  Literature  in  IVorld’s  Best  Literature. 


12 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[194 

These  epics  are  the  highest  literary  expression  of  the 
Hindu  mind,  and  have  exercised  a great  influence  on  the  life 
of  the  people  of  India. 

Apart  from  these  more  formal  writings,  embodying  the 
intellectual  and  moral  faith  of  the  Hindus,  there  are  later 
and  simpler  collections  of  traditionary,  oral,  village  teaching, 
containing  fables,  allegories,  and  parables.  These  fireside 
tales  were  numerous,  and  they  very  largely  influenced  the 
faith  of  the  simpler  folk.  The  oldest  of  these  collections  of 
popular  stories  is 

The  Pmichatantra.  It  dates  from  about  the  Vth  century 
A.  D.,  and  was  translated  in  the  Vlth  into  the  Persian  and 
Arabic,  thence  into  several  of  the  languages  of  Asia,  and 
later  into  a number  of  the  languages  of  Europe. 

Governing  Througli  the  wholc  system  of  Vedic  thought  there 

Idea,  one  general,  governing  idea,  the  omnipenetra- 

tiveness  of  the  Deity,  as  it  has  been  called,  or  a spiritual 
pantheism.  The  practical  effects  of  this  pantheistic  tem- 
perament were  conspicuous  in  the  fact  that  the  highest 
aim  of  the  Hindu  is  abnegation  of  life,  with  a view  to 
the  absorption  of  the  individual  into  the“  All.”  Trans- 
migration was  only  a step  in  the  process  of  absorption. 
Before  the  All- One,  the  individual  is  of  no  moment. 
Such  an  idea,  if  rooted  in  the  nature  of  a people,  is  an 
effective  check  to  all  self-reliant  activity,  weakens  all  sense 
of  individual  responsibility,  and  destroys  the  ambition  of 
excellence.  Ascetic  contemplation  becomes  the  supreme 
virtue  in  religion.  Thus  the  ethical  virtues  of  a people 
whose  deepest  convictions  are  pantheistic,  and  whose  highest 
hopes  are  of  personal  absorption  in  the  universal,  are  such 
as  temperance,  patience,  docility,  gentleness  and  resignation. 
These  are  naturally  accompanied  by  politeness,  respect  for 
parents  and  elders,  and  obedience  to  the  powers  that  be, 
both  civic  and  ecclesiastic. 


INTRODUCTORY 


3 


195] 

But  duty,  ill  the  old  Greek  sense,  or  in  our  commanding 
sense  of  the  word,  and  the  virtues  flowing  from  a strong  per- 
sonality which  controls  circumstances,  and  shapes  the  life, 
were  not  to  be  expected,  nor  were  they  found. 

The  aim  The  end  of  education  is  thus  expressed  in 

of  Education.  Mauu’s  Book  of  Laws : 

“ Studying  the  Veda,  (practising)  austerities,  (the  acqui- 
sition of  true)  knowledge,  the  subjugation  of  the  organs, 
abstention  from  doing  injury,  and  serving  the  Guru  [the 
spiritual  teacher]  are  the  best  means  for  attaining  supreme 
bliss.”^ 

The  educational  significance  of  this  religious  and  ethical 
system  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  was  the  natural  expression  of 
the  real  Hindu  mind,  which  was  dreamy  and  metaphysical. 
It  is,  however,  worthy  of  note  that  Hinduism  was  not,  in  its 
origin  and  essence,  a religion  of  externalism.  It  was  the 
inner  life  of  the  soul  that  was  of  moment,  and  when  this  was 
lost  sight  of.  Buddhism  arose.  When  sacrifice  and  ceremo- 
nial began  to  supersede  the  intellectual  aad  ethical  elements  of 
Brahmanism,  the  reform  that  Buddhism  attempted,  followed. 

But  the  effect  of  Buddhistic  teaching  on  the  Hindu  mind 
was  not  an  awakening  of  the  individuality ; for,  while  the 
God  of  Brahmanism  was  a union  with  the  absolute  Being,  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  absorption,  the  God  of  Buddhism 
was  extinction  of  the  individual,  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  non-existence.  In  both  cases  individuality  was  gone. 
Effect  of  This  brief  summary  of  the  Hindu  philosophy  of 
Teaching,  life,  as  influenced  by  both  Brahmanic  and  Buddhistic 
thought,  will  enable  us  to  understand  the  very  theoretical 
character  of  ancient  education  in  India.  Wuttke  strikingly 
contrasts  it  with  even  the  neighboring  Oriental,  but  more 
practical,  system  of  ethics  taught  by  Confucius  in  China : 

' Translation  of  G.  Biihler  in  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  Vol.  XXV.,  xii.  83. 
Compare  also  chapter  on  “ Studentship,”  ii.  6-249. 


14 


EDUCATION  IN  lADIA 


[196 

“ The  Chinese,*’  says  he,  “ educate  for  practical  life,  the 
Indians  for  the  ideal ; those  for  earth,  these  for  heaven ; 
those  educate  their  sons  for  entering  the  world,  these  for 
going  out  of  it;  those  educate  for  citizenship,  these  for 
priesthood ; those  for  industrial  activity,  these  for  knowl- 
edge ; those  teach  their  sons  the  laws  of  the  state,  these 
teach  them  the  essence  of  the  Godhead ; those  lead  their 
sons  into  the  world,  these  lead  them  out  of  the  world  into 
themselves ; those  teach  their  children  to  earn  and  enjoy, 
these  to  beg  and  to  renunciate.” 

Caste.  When  we  approach  the  subject  of  education  in  India 
we  are  met  by  the  great,  all-influencing  socio-religious  fact  of 
Caste,  a system  which  grew  up,  gradually,  and  which  claims 
to  be  as  old  as  the  Vedas. ^ This  caste  system  determined 
the  character  and  the  area  of  the  education.  While  its 
origin  may  have  been  based  upon  social  conditions,  it  came 
to  have  a religious  sanction,  and  its  observance  became 
largely  the  religion  of  the  people. 

External  While  we  must  recognize  the  presence  of  a per- 
influences.  manent  influence — the  Brahman  Caste  System — 
throughout  the  long  story  of  the  study  of  letters,  and  of  the 
preservation  of  culture  in  India,  there  were  other  influences, 
external  to  Brahmanism,  that  entered  into,  and  affected,  for 
a time,  the  development  of  education  in  India.  These  were 
not,  however,  of  a permanent  character,  and  it  cannot  be  said 
that  they  changed  the  course  of  the  history  of  education 
among  the  Hindus.  These  external  influences  were  Budd- 
hism and  Muhammadanism. 

a.  Buddhism.  The  Buddhistic  Reform.ation  began  about  500 
B.  C.,  but  it  was  only  from  about  250  B.  C.  that  it  formulated 
itself  as  a rival  of  Brahmanism.  In  500  A.  D.,  Brahmanism 
again  gained  the  ascendency,  and  Buddhism  was  exiled  to 


1 Kaeki,  Rig  Veda.  Translation  by  Arrowsmith,  p.  17  and  p.  114,  note  56. 


IXl  RODUCTORY 


197. 


15 


Ceylon  in  the  South,  Thibet  in  the  North,  and  Burmah, 
China  and  Japan  in  the  East. 

Buddhistic  Buddhistic  Education  ^ it  may  be  said,  in 

Education,  general,  that  the  people  were  upon  a perfect 
equality,  as  the  teaching  of  Buddha  was,  in  part,  a protest 
against  the  divisions  of  caste.  All  were  alike  interested  in 
the  common  routine,  which  was  everywhere  the  same,  em- 
bracing reading  and  writing  in  the  vernaculars,  and  some 
smattering  of  knowledge  of  the  sacred  Pali  text.  These 
schools  had  no  direct  revenues,  the  priests  being  dependent 
upon  the  free-will  offerings  of  the  people  for  their  subsist- 
ence. Usage  imposed  upon  parents  the  duty  of  feeding  the 
clergy  of  the  colleges  in  which  their  children  were  being  edu- 
cated. A large  number  of  scholars,  therefore,  formed  the 
best  endowment.  These  schools  were  attended  by  girls,  on 
the  same  terms.  With  the  exception  of  the  schools  in  Bur- 
mah, and  of  a few  large  collegiate  monasteries  in  Ceylon  and 
in  northern  India,  Buddhism,  as  an  educational  force,  has 
long  since  passed  out  of  India. 

hYMuhammadantsm.  From  about  the  time  of  the  final  expulsion 
of  Buddhism  from  India,  Muhamm.adanism  was  a controlling 
force  in  the  political  life  of  that  country,  for  ten  centuries. 
Muhammadan  But  the  liistory  of  Muhauimadan  education  in 
Education,  offers  fcw  tcmptations  for  investigation. 

Everywhere  guiltless  of  a system,  it  was  more  than  usually 
fragmentary  in  a country  where  Moslem  rule  was  so  often 
synonymous  with  anarchy.  There  were  attached  to  the 
mosques  the  usual  classes  for  studying  the  Koran.  We 
are  told  also  that  the  Emperor,  Aurungzeb,  established 
universities  in  all  the  principal  cities,  and  erected  schools  in 
the  smaller  towns,  providing  them  with  libraries  and  endow- 
ments. But  how  much  of  this  was  theory,  and  how  much 
practice  and  actuality,  must  be  left  undecided,  for  evidence 
is  wanting  to  establish  the  latter  condition. 

^ Asiatic  Journal,  1841,  No.  34. 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


i6 


[198 


Character  To  thc  Musalman,  the  essence  of  all  literature 
of  Schools,  and  science  is  summed  up  in  the  Koran,  and  even 
the  most  ignorant  of  the  faithful  know  a few  verses,  whether 
they  understand  the  language  or  not.  Their  two  sacred 
languages  are  the  Persian  and  the  Arabic.  Mr.  Adam  found 
in  his  inquiries,  which  will  be  referred  to  more  particularly 
in  the  succeeding  chapter,  that  the  Persian  schools  were 
chiefly  elementary,  while  the  Arabic  were  more  advanced. 
Elementary  ^he  Muhammadan  elementary  schools  were  literary 
Schools,  and  philological  in  character,  and  employed  a 
learned  language.  They  had,  withal,  a commercial  value, 
inasmuch  as  throughout  the  Musalman  rule,  and  under  the 
English,  until  1835,  Persian  was  the  language  of  the  courts 
of  law  in  India.  To  this  fact  was  due  the  otherwise  surpris- 
ing circumstance  that  quite  half  the  number  of  students  in 
Persian  schools  were  Hindus,  largely  of  the  Brahman  caste. 
Advanced  In 'the  advanced  schools,  however,  the  language 
Schools,  employed  was  the  Arabic,  and  the  students  were,  to 
a man,  Musalmans.  In  these  schools  there  were  complete 
courses  in  rhetoric,  logic,  law,  ritual  and  theology.  Euclid 
and  Ptolemy’s  Astronomy  were  familiar  in  translations,  and 
other  branches  of  Natural  Philosophy  were  followed.  In- 
deed, Arabic  learning  was  not  unknown  in  Europe. 

Although  the  advanced  schools,  few  in  number,  attained 
to  such  heights  in  scholastic  acquirement,  and  although  the 
Musalman  power  was  dominant  in  India  during  so  many 
centuries,  the  Islamic  faith  was  so  foreign  to  the  country,  and 
so  iconoclastic  in  its  relations  and  contact  with  other  re- 
ligions of  the  Hindus,  that  Muhammadanism  never  became 
a force  in  the  social  or  educational  life  of  the  people.  It 
never  was  more  than  an  external  influence,  although  its  fol- 
lowing constitutes  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  India. 


CHAPTER  II 


INDIGENOUS  EDUCATION 


While  the  preponderating  influence  of  religious  ideals 
upon  the  development  of  education  in  India  is  a fact,  as 
already  recognized  and  emphasized,  there  is  no  country 
where  the  love  of  learning  had  an  earlier  origin,  or  exercised 
Learning  in  ^ more  lasting  or  powerful  influence,  than  in  In- 
Eariiest  Times,  (jja.  From  the  poets  of  the  Vedic  age  to  the 
Bengali  philosopher  of  the  present  day,  there  has  been  an 
uninterrupted  succession  of  teachers  and  scholars.  The 
immense  literature  which  this  long  period  has  produced  is 
penetrated  with  the  scholastic  spirit.  The  ancient  Hindu 
theory  of  education  is  contained,  as  already  pointed  out,  in 
the  comprehensive  volume,  the  Institutes  of  Manu. 

Vicissitudes.  During  the  fifteen  centuries  ending  with  the 
tenth  of  our  era,  learning,  no  doubt,  experienced  many 
vicissitudes  of  popularity  and  unpopularity.  DifTerent 
teachers  and  seats  of  learning  probably  acquired  and  lost 
great  reputations,  and  knowledge,  under  monarchs  of  vary- 
ing temperament,  was  doubtless  alternately  patronized  and 
eclipsed  in  camps  and  cities. 

Permanent  there  was  One  permanent  influence  universally 

Influence,  present  which  preserved  the  study  of  letters  from 
utter  annihilation.  This  was  the  authority  of  the  Brahman 
caste.  It  was  to  this  spiritual  authority  that  India  owed  the 
preservation  of  her  culture  through  long  periods  of  darkness 
which  history  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  penetrating. 

Government  Until  the  year  1820  that  interest  be- 

inquiries.  to  be  aroused  in  the  subject  of  indigenous  ed- 

199]  17 


i8 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[200 

ucation  in  India,  and  that  English  researches  discovered  the 
state  of  native  education  in  operation.  At  that  time,  Govern- 
ment was  induced  to  make  careful  inquiries,  preparatory  to 
undertaking  and  instituting  fresh  measures  of  its  own.  Of 
these  inquiries,  the  three  most  important  were  conducted 
in  the  Presidencies  of  Madras,  Bombay,  and  Bengal,  com- 
mencing in  1822,  1823,  and  1835,  respectively.  These  were 
set  on  foot  by  three  of  the  most  eminent  British  Governors 
who  ever  ruled  in  India,  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  of  Madras, 
Lord  Elphinstone,  of  Bombay,  and  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
of  Bengal.  Later,  inquiries  were  instituted  in  the  other 
minor  provinces ; but  a brief  reference  to  these  three  im- 
portant researches  will  suffice  for  our  present  purpose. 

Sir  Thomas  year  1822,  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  Governor 

Munro  (1822), 

Madras.  of  Madras,  ordered  an  investigation'  to  be  made 
into  the  state  of  indigenous  education  in  that  Presidency. 
His  reasons  were  the  rapid  decay  of  literature  and  the  arts, 
and  the  deep  ignorance  in  which  the  masses  of  the  people 
were  sunk.  He  felt  it  to  be  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the 
East  India  Company  to  provide  for  the  “ moral  and  intel- 
lectual amelioration  ” of  the  condition  of  the  people.  The 
results  of  these  inquiries  were  made  known  in  1826,  in  which 
year  Sir  Thomas  reported  to  the  Court  of  Directors,  as 
follows  i"* 

“ It  appears  that  the  number  of  schools  and  what  are 
called  colleges  in  the  territories  under  this  Presidency, 
amount  to  12,498,  and  the  population  to  12,850,941  : so 
that  there  is  one  school  to  every  one  thousand  of  the  popu- 
lation ; but,  as  only  a very  few  females  are  taught  in  schools, 
we  may  reckon  one  school  to  every  500  of  the  population." 
He  concludes:  “I  am  inclined  to  estimate  the  portion  of 

* Minute  dated  June  25,  1822. 

^Minute  dated  March  10,  1826. 


INDIG ENO  US  ED  UCA  TION 


9 


20l] 

the  whole  population  who  receive  school  education  to  be 

nearer  one-third  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole The 

state  of  education  exhibited,  low  as  it  is,  compared  with  that 
of  our  own  country,  is  higher  than  it  was  in  most  European 
countries  at  no  very  distant  times.” 

LordEiphm-  Lord  Elphiustone’s  researches  in  Bombay  were 

stone  (1823', 

Bombay,  set  on  foot  in  the  year  1823,  from  the  same 
motives  as  were  those  of  Munro.  Their  results  were  com- 
municated in  a Minute  to  the  Council  in  1832  : 

“ It  appears  that,  in  the  British  territories  dependent  on 
Bombay,  containing  a population  of  4,681,735  souls,  there 
are  1705  schools,  at  which  35,143  scholars  are  receiving  ed- 
ucation.” 

According  to  Munro’s  calculation,  it  follows  that,  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  only  one  in  eight  boys  of  the  proper 
age  (between  5 and  10  years)  was  receiving  any  instruction. 
As  elsewhere  in  India,  there  was  little  trace  of  female  educa- 
tion. 

Lord  Ben-  1 83  5 Lord  Bentiiick  instituted  similar  in- 

tinck  11835), 

Bengal.  quii'ics,  appointing  Mr.  Adam  to  investigate  the 
state  of  education  in  Bengal.  His  three  Reports  appeared  in 
1833,  1836,  and  1838.  Erom  the  accuracy  of  their  informa- 
tion, the  candor,  sense,  and  statesmanship  of  their  author, 
these  Reports  are  among  the  most  valuable,  authoritative,  and 
interesting  publications  extant  on  education  in  India. 

Mr.  Adam’s  general  results  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Adam  for 

Reports.  Bengal  were  these  : 

In  a population  of  7,789,152,  there  were  3,355  schools, 
with  41,247  scholars.  In  a population  of  692,270  there 
were  2,414  children  being  taught  at  home,  which,  for  the 
former  population,  would  represent  about  28,000  scholars. 
Of  the  adult  male  population,  an  average  of  about  5.55  per 
cent,  could  read  and  write.  On  the  whole,  about  7.8  per 
cent,  of  children  of  school  age  were  being  taught  at  school, 


20 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[202 


and  over  5.2  per  cent,  at  home,  giving  a total  percentage 

of  13. 

Character  of  character  of  the  schools,  as  determined 

Native  Schools,  by  these  researches.  Seemed  to  correspond  with 
the  period  examined.  At  the  period  of  transition  from  the 
Vedic  to  the  Brahmanic  stage  of  religious  development. 
Court  Schools,  about  1200  B.  C.,  the  Courts  of  the  Kiii^s  were 
1200 B.c.  centres  of  culture.  Priests  were  attached  to 

these  courts,  and,  in  connection  Avith  them,  there  grew  up 
schools  for  the  studying  and  handing  down  of  sacred  hymns 
and  sacrificial  practices.  At  a later  period,  1000  B.  C.,  there 
Collegiate  ^I'ose  Bralimaiiic  settlements,  called  _Parishads, 
Institutions,  which  we  might  call  Collegiate  institutions  of 
1000 B.C.  their  beginnings,  these  Parishads 

were  constituted  by  three  able  Brahmans  in  a village,  learned 
in  the  Vedas,  and  competent  to  maintain  the  sacrificial  fire. 
To  these  centres,  men  who  Avished  to  devote  their  lives  to 
learning  might  go,  and  receive  instruction  in  the  Vedas. 

Megasthenes,  the  Greek  historian  Avho  lived  in  India  three 
centuries  B.  C.,  seemed  to  imply  the  existence  of  schools 
suited  to  the  four  great  divisions  of  caste. 
c^,e Schools,  These  were; 

300 B.C.  I.  The  Brahman  schools,  Avhose  exclusive 
function  Avas  to  educate  Priests  and  Teachers. 

2.  The  Warrior  Schools,  Avhose  function  Avas  to  train  the 
pupils  to  martial  exercises. 

3.  The  Industrial  Schools,  whose  method  seemed  to  be 
the  apprentice  system  ; and, 

4.  The  LoAvest  Schools,  where  the  training  Avas  for,  and 
by  means  of,  menial  work. 

Of  Female  Education  there  Avas  none. 

Modern  Schools.  Inmore  modem  times,  the  schools  discovered 
by  the  Government  inquiries  under  present  reference,  were 
of  tAvo  kinds,  so  far  as  the  preponderating  Plindu  community 


INDIG ENO  US  ED  UCA  TION 


2 


203] 

was  concerned.  Distinctively  Buddhistic  and  Muhammadan 
schools,  built  upon  the  religious  ideals  of  those  compara- 
tively small  communities,  have  been  noted  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

For  the  education  of  the  Hindus  there  were: 

1.  Elementary  Schools,  or  I^a^as  : 

2.  Schools  of  Learning,  or  Tols,  corresponding  to  the 
^rbhads,  or  ancient  collegiate  institutions. 

Patasaias,  'fhe  elementary  schools  existed  in  most  of  the 

Elementary 

Schools,  villages  of  India,  a country  largely  given  up  to 
agriculture.  In  the  early  morning,  the  few  lads  would 
assemble  in  the  village  shed,  or  under  the  shade  of  a wide- 
branching  tree.  The  teachers,  who  were  village  officers, 
were  supported  by  presents  given  on  leaving  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  or  period  of  service,  or  by  monthly  or  weekly 
gifts  in  grain,  food,  or  clothing,  the  whole  not  averaging 
above  Rs.  5,  or  possibly  $2.00  per  mensem.  Though  be- 
longing to  the  caste  of  writers,  or  scribes,  they  were  little 
respected  and  poorly  rewarded. 

The  teaching  was  oral,  both  books  and  manuscripts  being 
then  unknown.  The  boys  commenced  their  attendance  at 
school  at  about  the  age  of  five,  and  continued  for  five  years, 
progressing  through  four  stages.  The  first  was  occupied 
with  learning  the  vowels  and  consonants,  and  tracing  them 
with  their  fingers,  on  a sand  floor.  During  the  second  period 
the  boys  were  taught  to  write  on  the  palm  leaf,  with  a reed 
pen,  connecting  vowels  and  consonants,  and  they  were  also 
taught  tables  of  numeration,  weight,  measure,  and  money. 
In  the  third  period,  they  studied  the  rules  of  arithmetic  and 
the  elements  of  mensuration.  The  last  period  was  devoted 
to  advanced  arithmetic,  to  accounts,  and  to  the  composition 
of  letters  written  on  paper.  The  orthography  of  the  native 
languages  was  not  required  in  the  Patasaias.  These  schools 
were  resorted  to  chiefly  by  the  sons  of  the  merchant  and 


22 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[204 


banking  classes.  The  amom^of^earning  imparted  was 
largely  dependent  upon  the  diligence  and  capacity  of  the 
masters.  On  the  whole,  the  teachers  seem  to  have  been 
fairly  conscientious,  regarding  their  occupation  as  one  with 
a long  and  honorable  tradition. 

Schools  of  yj-jg  Schools  of  Learning  were  entirely  uncon- 

Learning.  ^ 

Tois.  nected  with  the  Patasalas,  or  Village  Schools.  So 
complete  was  the  severance  that  the  preliminary  instruction 
necessary  for  entrance  to  the  Tols  was  generally  obtained, 
not  in  the  Patasalas,  but  at  home.  Although  only  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  three  in  the  number  of  schools,  and  one 
to  ten  in  the  number  of  scholars,  the  Tols  bore  a higher 
reputation  than  the  Patasalas.  While,  theoretically,  the 
study  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  poetry  and  astronomy  was  open 
to  the  inferior  castes,  all  higher  education,  except  medicine, 
was  imparted  only  by  Brahman  teachers  and  received  only 
by  Brahman  boys.  Mr.  Adam  writes,  in  his  reports,  in  the 
highest  terms  of  the  teachers  in  these  schools.  Although 
living  amid  the  humblest  surroundings,  unpretentious  and 
simple  in  their  manner,  these  men  were  adepts  in  the  subtle- 
ties of  the  profoundest  grammar  of  what  is  probably  the 
most  philosophical  language  in  Asia,  if  not  in  the  world,  the 
Sanskrit.  The}^  were  skilled  in  the  niceties  of  its  usage,  and 
in  the  principles  of  its  structure.  They  were  familiar  with 
their  national  laws  and  literature,  and  indulged  in  the  most 
abstruse  disquisitions  in  logic  and  ethical  philosophy.  They 
were  the  visible  representatives  of  culture  and  religion,  and 
of  all  the  higher  forces  in  the  Hindus. 

These  schools  were  not  supported  byjees,  which  are  for- 
bidden by  the  Institutes  of  Manu.  At  the  end  of  the  course, 
the  scholars  made  a present  to  their  Master.  Not  infre- 
quently the  school  possessed  a small  endowment  of  land. 
Bound  together  by  common  study  of  sacred  books,  and  by 
close  ties  of  caste,  the  intercourse  between  teacher  and 
scholar  resembled  that  which  Fichte  conceived. 


INDIGENO  US  ED  UCA  TION 


23 


205j 

The  course  of  study  lasted  for  as  much  as  20  years,  from 
the  loth  to  the  30th  year.  They  did  not  attempt  to  teach 
the  whole  circle  of  sciences.  At  an  early  date  special  schools 
sprang  up,  of  Literature,  Law,  Logic,  Mythology,  Medicine 
and  Vedanta.  The  general  characteristics  of  instruction 
were  impracticability  and  thoroughness.  The  pandit  was 
indifferent  to  the  due  proportion  of  things,  and  careless  of 
the  flight  of  time.  Commentaries  on  commentaries  were 
committed  to  memory.  Arguments  laboriously  built  up  one 
day  were  declared  fallacious  the  next,  and  as  laboriously 
refuted.  This  kind  of  training  produced  Jts  characteristic 
results — an  unworldliness,  a want  of  practical  sagacity,  an 
intellectual  isolation,  and  intensified  class  feeling,  stronger 
than  has  been  known  in  any  other  country.  But,  with  these 
limitations  and  incongruities,  the  authority  possessed  by 
these  schools  and  teachers  through  so  many  centuries  was 
unquestioned,  and  limited  only  by  Cape  Cormorin  and  the 
Himalayas. 

Summary.  Such  was  the  charactci'  and  extent  of  the  native 
education  revealed  by  these  early  English  researches.  On 
the  average,  about  one  boy  in  ten  of  the  proper  age  was 
receiving  some  kind  of  indigenous  education.  The  lower 
orders  were  entirely  uninstructed.  The  classes  of  middle 
rank  received  a scanty  and  strictly  commercial  training.  On 
the  other  hand,  every  Brahman  was  able  to  read  and  write, 
and  a considerable  body  of  this  class  had  partaken  of  what 
may  be  styled  a liberal  education,  while  not  a few  had, 
further,  obtained  some  eminence  in  such  studies  as  grammar, 
rhetoric,  mathematics  and  metaphysics.  In  physical  science 
their  knowledge  was  infinitely  inferior  to  that  current  in 
Europe  at  the  corresponding  date.  In  these  more  practical 
branches,  real  progress  had  ceased  for  centuries.  But  the 
attainments  of  the  Hindus  w^ere  not  inferior  to  those  of  any 
ancient  nation,  nor,  indeed,  to  those  of  Europe,  prior  to  the 
Renaissance. 


24 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[206 

Moreover,  these  inquiries  in  the  early  part  of  this  century 
found  education,  like  all  else  in  India,  in  a state  of  decline, 
due  to  the  anarchy  and  oppression  which  had  protracted  the 
people’s  energies  for  three  or  four  centuries,  or  since  the 
crumbling  away  of  the  great  Moghul  Dynasties. 


PART  II 


EDUCATION  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE 

CHAPTER  I 

Introduction.  HAVING  thus  placcd  bcforc  ourselves  the  pre- 
dominating religious  ideals,  and  the  consequent  educational 
system  among  the  people  of  India,  we  are  now  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  consideration  of  the  most  important  phase  of 
our  inquiry,  and  that  which  concerns  us  most  from  a practi- 
cal standpoint,  viz.,  Modern  Education  in  India:  its  history 
and  organization  and  its  present  condition. 

We  shall  frequently  be  called  upon  to  observe  how  largely 
this  has  been  furthered  by  the  pre-existence  of  a wide- 
spread system,  and  how  large  a part  of  the  schools  now  in 
operation  are  hardly  more  than  reconstructions  of  the  ancient 
indigenous  schools  which  we  have  found  to  have  existed  in 
almost  every  village. 

The  Period.  The  story  of  Modern  Education  in  India  covers, 
for  the  most  part,  the  period  of  the  XVIIIth  and  XIXth  cen- 
turies, and  it  is  European  in  its  character,  the  predominating 
influences  being  Scotch  and  English.  Although  contribu- 
tions were  made  by  the  Dutch,  the  Portuguese,  the  Danish, 
the  French  and  the  German,  these  have  not  been  of  a 
sufficient  extent,  nor  have  they  covered  a sufficient  period  of 
time  to  entitle  them  to  be  considered  as  separate  influences 
affecting  the  development  of  the  modern  British  system 
superimposed  upon  the  ancient,  indigenous  system,  so  long- 
lived  and  so  wide-spread  in  India. 

207] 


25 


26 


EDUCATJON  IX  INDIA 


[208 

Its  Influence.  It  is  oiily  of  latc  ycars  that  British  Education 
has  commenced  to  take  root  in  the  soil  of  India.  Like  other  ; < 
parts  of  that  striking  experiment  whereby  the  newest  Euro-  ; 
pean  methods  are  being  applied  to  the  re-organization  of  a j’j' 

long  stationary  Asiatic  Society,  it  has  yet  to  adapt  itself  ,v.j 
entirely  to  changed  conditions,  to  minds  differently  consti-  d 
tilted,  and  to  divergent  modes  of  thought.  To  the  present 
time  its  history  has  been  one  of  measures  and  statistics.  ii? 
And  it  will  be  long  before  the  changes  which  are  at  work  in  |j 
Hinduism  will  result  in  characteristic  movements  in  definite 
directions.  As  yet,  we  dare  not  predict  with  certainty  what 
place  modern  British  Education  will  finally  hold  in  its 
theories,  and  what  share  the  Sanskrit  Literature  and  Brah- 
manic  Philosophy  will  retain  of  its  affection  and  regard. 

Its  Treatment.  In  the  treatment  of  British  Education  in  India, 
we  shall  deal  with  it  under  three  phases : 

A.  Its  History  and  Development. 

' B.  Its  Present  Condition. 

C.  Its  Chief  Problems  of  the  Present  and  the  P'uture. 

A.  History  and  Development. 

Modern,  or  European,  education  in  India  covering,  as  we 
have  said,  the  last  two  centuries,  has  passed  through  four 
well-defined  stages: 

1.  The  first  begins  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
ends  in  about  1823,  when  government  inquiries  were  insti- 
tuted into  the  state  of  indigenous  education.  It  was  a period 
of  almost  exclusively  private  effort,  with  only  occasional 
government  participation,  the  ulterior  object  of  which  was 
the  conciliation  of  the  people. 

2.  The  second  period  ends  with  the  great  Despatch  of  the 
Court  of  Directors,  drawn  up  by  Sir  Charles  Wood,  in  1854, 
and  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  English  education  in  India. 

This  established  something  like  uniformity  in  the  place  of 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


27 


209] 

the  previously  divergent  administrations,  and  placed  govern- 
ment participation  in  the  education  of  the  people  upon  sound 
principles. 

3.  The  third  period  extends  to  the  Education  Commission 
of  1882-3.  At  this  time,  a careful  inquiry  was  entered  upon 
as  to  the  workings  of  the  system  during  the  quarter  century 
of  its  establisment,  and  changes  were  made  looking  to  its 
better  adaptation  to  the  altered  conditions  and  to  the  new 
developments. 

4.  The  fourth  period  has  to  do  with  the  last  two  de- 
cades, commencing  with  the  appointment  and  labors  of  the 
Education  Commission,  during  which  strenuous  efforts 
have  been  made  by  Government,  and  private  bodies,  to 
strengthen  the  educational  system,  and  to  include  within  its 
beneficent  influence  the  lower  castes,  and  the  great  number 
of  the  outcastes,  the  Panchamma,  or  fifth  class,  as  falling  en- 
tirely without  the  four  great  divisions  of  caste,  and  consti- 
tuting one-sixth  of  the  population. 

First  Period.  In  India,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  the  pioneers  in 

1706-1823.  education  were  the  missionaries. 

Omitting  the  labors  of  Xavier,  at  Goa,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  of  the  Dutch,  in  Ceylon,  in  the  seventeenth, 
the  first  teachers  who  enter  into  this  period  were  the  early 
The  Danish  Danish  missionaries,  Ziegenbalg,  Schulze  and 

Mission.  Schwartz.  Arriving  in  Tranquebar  in  1706,  the 
first  of  these  set  themselves  at  once  to  study  the  vernaculars, 
with  a view  to  teaching.  The  schools  established  by  this 
Mission  at  no  time  contained  any  large  number  of  pupils. 
The  maximum  number  never  rose  above  500.  But  the  his- 
tory of  this  Danish  Mission  is  interesting,  not  only  because 
of  the  ability  and  character  of  its  missionaries,  but,  also,  and 
especially,  because  it  narrates  the  earliest  attempts  at  Pro- 
testant education,  which  has  now  attained  so  great  a develop- 
ment in  India.  It  has  another  special  interest  for  us,  inas- 
much as  these  Danish  missionaries  came  in  contact  with 


28 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[210 

almost  all  the  fundamental  questions  which  have  aroused 
discussion  in  connection  with  education  in  India,  and  some 
Educational  whicli  are  still  vehemently  debated.  Some  of 
Questions,  theso  questions  were  : 

a.  The  Desirability  of  Religious  Instruction,  which  was 
affirmatively  maintained  by  them. 

d.  The  Choice  of  the  Language  to  be  employed,  which 
was  decided  in  favor  of  the  Vernaculars,  in  the  large  number 
of  schools,  English  only  being  used  in  seminaries  and  nor- 
mal classes,  as  the  most  convenient  means  of  giving  access 
to  the  stores  of  European  knowledge. 

c.  The  Production  of  a Vernacular  Literature,  which  they 
accomplished,  in  part,  through  the  translation  of  the  Bible, 
and  the  publication  of  dictionaries  and  school-books  for 
their  own  schools. 

English  Missions.  the  year  1727,  the  first  English  Mission 

s.  p.  c.  K.  was  established  in  India,  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge.  This  Society  secured  the 
ser\dces  of  the  great  Danish  missionary,  Schwartz,  who 
arrived  in  India  in  1760,  and  who  was  their  chief  agent  in 
establishing  schools  in  a number  of  the  large  cities  in  South- 
ern India.  This  illustrious  pioneer  did  more  than  any  other 
man  in  the  eighteenth  century  for  Christianity  and  for  edu- 
cation in  India. 

Baptist  close  of  this  century  saw  the  appearance  of 

Society,  the  third  missionary  society,  that  of  the  English 
Baptists,  whose  field  of  labor  was  Bengal,  and  whose  chief 
representatives  were  Carey,  Ward,  Grant  and  Marshman,  all 
men  of  ability  and  distinction.  They  were  able,  by  their 
Oriental  scholarship,  to  provide  schools  of  a higher  grade. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  a 
Societies,  great  impulse  was  given  to  missionary  and  educa- 
tional enterprise.  The  London,  the  Wesleyan  and  the 
Church  Missionary  Societies  began  to  plant  stations  and 
schools  in  Eastern  and  Southern  India.  It  is  probable  that 


HISTORY  A HD  DEVELOPMENT 


2II] 


29 


at  the  close  of  this  first  period  there  were  about  15,000 
children  under  tuition  in  these  mission  institutions. 

Their  Character  Elementary  and  precarious  as  was  the  charac- 

and  Service 

to  Education,  ter  of  most  of  these  schools,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  circumstances,  obstructed  by  the  prejudices  of 
the  government  and  the  fears  of  the  people,  this  early 
missionary  education  is,  nevertheless,  interesting  as  the  be- 
ginning of  a now  widely  prevalent  system.  Its  chief  import- 
ance lay,  however,  in  the  fact  that  it  was  the  means  of 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  Government,  both  in  India 
and  in  England,  to  what  was  a plain  duty. 

Early  Govern-  ^ho  first  project  for  uativo  educatioii  which 
ment  Attempts,  bg  ascribcd  to  Govemmeut,  was  a scheme 
propounded  in  1784  for  establifhing  English  schools  for  the 
Madras,  higher  classes  of  every  province.  With  the  assist- 
; ance  of  the  missionary,  Schwartz,  a few  schools  were  started, 

I but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  increased  in  number. 

Calcutta.  In  the  same  year,  also,  Warren  Hastings,  then 
Governor-General,  determined  upon  the  establishment  of  an 
Arabic  College  in  Calcutta,  with  the  double  object  of  arrest- 
ing the  decay  of  Oriental  learning,  and  of  encouraging  good 
feeling  between  the  English  and  their  subjects. 

'Benares.  This  Muhammadan  institution  in  Calcutta  was  fol- 
lowed, in  1791,  by  the  Sanskrit  College  at  Benares,  the 
ancient  sacred  city  of  the  Hindus.  The  real  object  of  the 
founding  of  the  latter  was  clear  from  the  proposed  course  of 
study,  which  included  the  entire  curriculum  of  Hindu  study. 
The  promotion  of  Orientalism  was,  thenceforth,  until  the 
famous  minute  of  Macaulay,  in  1835,  the  settled  policy  of 
Government. 

Summary.  Withiii  this  first  period,  therefore,  there  were  in 
operation  the  three  kinds  of  education  now  carried  on  in 
India,  Indigenous,  Missionary  and  Government.  Hence- 
forth, Government  Education  will  engage  most  of  our  atten- 
tion. The  other  two  will  need  only  occasional  references. 


CHAPTER  II- 


Second  Period, 

It  has  often  been  remarked,  and  not  without  many  illus- 
trations of  its  truth,  that  most  measures  of  reform  which 
have  benefited  India  since  it  came  under  British  rule  have 
been  mainly  advocated  and  effected  in  England.  This  ap- 
peal, apparently  from  the  well-informed  to  the  ignorant,  has 
been  in  reality,  in  the  past,  an  appeal  from  Justice  in  India 
to  Justice  Universal.  This  is  illustrated  in  connection  with 
educational  reforms  inaugurated  in  the  period  now^  under 
consideration. 

Educational  The  Royal  Charter,  under  which  the  East  India 
Reforms.  (Company  operated  its  great  possessions  in  India, 
was  renewable  every  twenty  years.  In  1793  the  propo- 
sals of  Wilberforce  to  introduce  an  educational  clause  into 
the  charter  failed;  but  in  1813,  reinforced  by  Grant,  he  re- 
vived the  proposal.  In  an  essay  upon  the  Condition  of  the 
People  of  India  they  claimed  that,  “by  planting  our  lan- 
guage, our  knowledge,  our  opinions,  and  our  religion  in  our 
Asiatic  territories  we  shall  put  a great  work  beyond  the 
reach  of  contingencies.  We  shall,  probably,  have  wedded 
the  inhabitants  of  these  territories  to  this  country;  but,  at 
any  rate,  we  shall  have  done  an  act  of  strict  duty  to  them, 
and  a lasting  service  to  mankind.” 

Charter  of  1813.  Parliament  came  to  see  that,  in  a large  view  of 
the  circumstances,  it  was  the  duty  of  England  to  improve  the 
state  of  knowledge  among  her  subjects  in  India,  and  the  fol- 
lowing regulation  was  included  in  the  Charter  of  1813: 
“ That  a sum  of  not  less  than  one  lakh  (100,000)  of  Rupees 
212]  30 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


31 


213] 

in  each  year  shall  be  set  apart  and  applied  to  the  founding 
and  maintaining  of  colleges,  schools,  public  lectures,  and 
other  institutions  for  the  revival  and  improvement  of  litera- 
ture, for  the  encouragement  of  the  learned  natives  of  India, 
and  for  the  introduction  and  promotion  of  a knowledge  of 
the  sciences  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  territories 
in  India.” 

Application  of  Court  of  Directors  were  not  a little  em- 

Grant.  barrassed  as  to  the  disposal  of  the  Rs.  100,000  a 
year  with  which,  contrary  to  their  wish,  they  found  them- 
selves presented.  They,  however,  communicated  with  the 
Governor-General  in  1814,  proposing  to  expend  this  grant 
from  their  own  revenues,  not  in  building  new  colleges,  but  in 
improving  those  already  in  existence,  and  in  inspiring  their 
younger  civil  servants  with  the  desire  to  study  the  Sanskrit 
language,  by  the  offer  of  liberal  rewards.  Notwithstanding 
these  official  proposals,  it  was  said  by  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan, 
in  his  work  on  Education  in  India, ^ that,  until  1823  no  steps 
were  taken  to  carry  out  the  orders  of  Parliament.  This 
statement,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  entirely  borne  out 
by  the  official  report  of  Government  expenditures  on  Edu- 
cation during  the  years  1813-30. 

Committee  of  decisive  step  was  the 

Public  Instruction,  appointment  of  a “Committee  of  Public  In- 
struction,” in  1823.  This  Board  was  charged  with  the  yearly 
expenditure  of  the  lakh  of  rupees  voted  by  Parliament,  and 
all  the  institutions  at  that  time  maintained  by  the  Govern- 
ment w^ere  placed  under  its  authority. 

Institutions.  These  included  an  English  College,  six  Oriental 
Colleges,  and  a number  of  elementary  schools  in  Bengal  and 
Rajputana.  The  Committee,  however,  did  not  confine  itself 
to  this  scant  organization,  but  gave  its  attention,  also,  to 
Press,  the  publication  of  Oriental  books.  A press  was 

^ 1835. 


32 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[214 

started  in  1824,  and  received  a monthly  grant  of  Rs.  700. 
Great  as  was  the  benefit  that  Sanskrit  and  Arabic  scholar- 
ship in  England  and  on  the  Continent  received,  as  an  educa- 
tional expedient  for  India  it  was  an  embarrassing  failure,  and 
ceased  to  operate  in  1835. 

1823-1833.  It  would  be  useless  to  follow,  in  any  detail,  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Committee  from  1823  to  1833.  During 
that  period  no  new  principle  was  enunciated,  and  but  a very 
few  new  institutions  were  founded.  The  only  innovation  of 
any  importance  was  the  establishment  of  classes  in  English 
in  all  the  chief  colleges.  Stipends  were  general,  and  were 
conferred  without  any  regard  to  proficiency. 

Dr.  Alexander  Duff.  In  1 830,  Dr.  Alexander  Duff  arrived  in 
Calcutta  as  the  Missionary  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Scotch  Kirk,  and  as  the  leader  of  the  great  educational  work 
inaugurated  by  that  mission,  and  carried  on  for  so  many 
years  by  that  and  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission.  Dr. 
Duff  established  a school  in  Calcutta,  and  chose  the  English 
language  as  the  vehicle  for  conveying  knowledge,  and  the 
science  and  literature  of  Europe  as  the  subject.  This  school 
was  an  eminent  success,  and  the  Hindus  flocked  thither  in 
large  numbers.  The  excellence  of  the  teaching,  and  the  re- 
sults of  the  public  examinations,  soon  made  the  school 
favorably  and  widely  known,  and  this  fact  gave  weight  to 
the  articles  which  Dr.  Duff  contributed  on  the  celebrated 
controversy  which  now  arose,  and  which  only  closed  with 
Macaulay’s  famous  Minute,  in  1835,  on  the  advantages  of 
English  over  Sanskrit  and  Arabic,  as  a medium  of  instruc- 
tion. 

The  Charter  When  the  Royal  Charter  was  renewed  in  1833, 
of  1833.  Parliament  increased  the  funds  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  Committee  from  Rs.  100,000  to  Rs.  1,000,000. 

Enhanced  Grant.  The  Question  as  to  the  employment  of  this  en- 
hanced sum  aroused  one  of  the  most  violent  controversies 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


33 


215] 


which  have  ever  taken  place  in  the  course  of  the  develop- 
ment of  British  education  in  India.  It  led  also  to  far-reach- 
ing results. 

Employment  was  in  favor  of  enlarging  its  previous 

of  Grant,  operations,  and  of  continuing  to  support  and  ex- 
tend Oriental  Education,  while  the  other,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  Dr.  Duff,  resolved  to  prevent  such  an  outlay,  and 
to  develop,  in  its  stead,  the  study  of  English,  as  the  vehicle 
for  conveying  knowledge. 

The  Controversy.  These  two  parties  in  the  Committee  ex- 
actly  balanced,  five  against  five;  but,  in 
point  of  ability  the  Orientalists  were  superior.  The  contro- 
versy was  not  settled  until  1835,  when,  as  we  have  already 
said,  a stouter  champion  entered  the  arena.  Lord  Macaulay 
arrived  in  India  in  1834  as  the  Legislative  Member  on  the 
Council  of  the  Governor-General.  Although  appointed 
President  of  the  Committee,  he  declined  to  act  until  some 
decision  in  regard  to  this  bitter  controversy  was  reached. 
Accordingly,  both  parties  made  a final  effort  and  sent  in  to 
Government  lengthy  expositions  of  their  opinions.  From 
his  official  position  on  the  Supreme  Council,  Macaulay  wrote 
on  the  2d  of  February,  1835,  celebrated  Minute,  which 
Decision,  vvas  ciidorscd  by  the  Governor-General,  Lord 
Bentinck,  and  was  followed  on  the  7th  of  March  by  a 
proclamation  which  established  the  triumph  of  the  English 
language  and  of  European  studies  in  India.  This  verdict  is 
the  most  important  fact  in  the  history  of  English  education 
in  India. 

Before  quoting  from  the  Minute  of  Macaulay,  which  was 
probably  the  determining  argument  in  the  long  controversy, 
and  which  has  now  taken  rank  as  an  English  classic,  the 
Summary  of  arguments  on  both  sides  may,  with  advantage,  be 
Arguments,  summarized. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  Orientalists  argued : 


34 

Orientalists. 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  INDIA  [ 2 1 6 

I.  That  the  Act  of  1813  provided  for  the  en- 
couragement of  the  learned  natives  of  India. 

2.  That  Government  was,  therefore,  pledged  to  keep  up  its 
Oriental  teaching. 

3.  That  it  is  unjust  to  force  the  people  of  India  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  language  of  a few  foreigners,  a language 
devoid  to  them  of  the  charm  of  association  and  inferior  to 
the  ancient  literature  and  thought  of  their  own  land. 

4.  That  a thorough  Arabic  or  Sanskrit  training  was  supe- 
rior to  a superficial  acquaintance  with  English. 

Anglicists.  On  the  other  hand,  the  advocates  of  English  urged  : 

1.  That  even  were  it  granted  that  by  “learned  natives” 
was  meant  natives  learned  in  Orientalia,  yet  the  act  went  on 
to  provide  for  the  promotion  of  a knowledge  of  the  sciences. 

2.  That  Government  had  never  given  a distinct  pledge  to 
maintain  Sanskrit  or  Arabic  studies.  Or,  if  even  there 
existed  such  a pledge,  it  had  been  improperly  given,  without 
knowledge  of  its  far-reaching  limitations,  and  the  committee 
was  bound  to  disregard  it.  By  parity  of  reasoning,  instruc- 
tion based  upon  new  discoveries  could  not  be  undertaken. 

3.  That  the  Hindus,  except  a few  of  the  Brahman  priests, 
were  themselves  in  favor  of  English  education,  as  shown  by 
the  success  of  the  Hindu  College  in  Calcutta,  and  of  the  col- 
lege founded  by  Dr.  Duff,  in  both  of  which  the  English 
classes  were  much  the  most  popular. 

4.  That  it  was  not,  as  was  assumed,  a question  of  a super- 
ficial knowledge  of  English,  as  against  a thorough  knowledge 
of  Sanskrit  or  Arabic.  The  latter  were  difficult  languages, 
requiring  many  years  for  their  mastery,  while  the  English 
was  an  easy  tongue,  in  which  the  Hindus  had  already  pro- 
duced compositions  which  had  excited  the  admiration  of 
Englishmen. 

5.  That,  finally,  a larger  view  should  be  taken  of  all  the 
circumstances.  The  Hindus  had  thoroughly  explored  and 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


217] 


exhausted  their  early  acquired  store  of  knowledge.  For 
many  centuries  their  intellectual  position  had  been  that 
of  the  schoolmen  of  Europe.  They  had  sharpened  their 
minds,  but  had  made  no  progress.  Now  there  was  a long- 
ing for  new  information.  Was  it  right  to  offer  them  stones 
when  they  asked  for  bread,  to  turn  them  back  to  the  “ false 
history,  false  astronomy,  false  medicine,  and  false  meta- 
physics,” which  attended  their  false  conceptions  of  life? 
“ It  would  be  as  if  Europe,  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance, 
had  been  turned  aside  from  their  Italian,  their  Latin,  and 
their  Greek,  to  the  Gothic  of  Ulfilas  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
of  Beowolf.” 

Macaulay’s  P^^so  to  quote  some  of 

Minute,  1835.  the  most  striking  paragraphs  from  Macaulay’s 
Minute : 

“ It  is  argued,  or  rather  taken  for  granted,  that  by  litera- 
ture, the  Parliament  can  have  meant  only  Arabic  or  Sanskrit 
Literature,  that  they  never  would  have  given  the  honorable 
appellation  of  a ‘learned  native’  to  a native  who  was 
familiar  with  the  poetry  of  Milton,  the  metaphysics  of  Locke, 
and  the  physics  of  Newton  ; but  that  they  meant  to  desig- 
nate, by  that  name,  only  such  persons  as  might  have  studied, 
in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus,  all  the  uses  of  cusa-grass, 
and  all  the  rhysteries  of  absorption  into  the  Deity.  This 
does  not  appear  to  be  a very  satisfactory  interpretation.  . . . 
All  parties  seem  to  be  agreed  on  one  point,  that  the  dialects 
commonly  spoken  among  the  natives  of  this  part  of  India 
contain  neither  literary  nor  scientific  information  and  that  the 
intellectual  improvement  of  those  classes  of  the  people  who 
have  the  means  of  pursuing  higher  studies,  can,  at  present,  be 
effected  only  by  means  of  some  language  not  vernacular 
amongst  them.” 

“What,  then,  shall  that  language  be?  One-half  of  the 
Committee  maintain  that  it  should  be  English.  The  other 


36 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[218 

half  strongly  recommend  the  Arabic  and  Sanskrit.  The 
whole  question  seems,  to  me,  to  be  which  language  is  best 
worth  knowing? 

“ I have  no  knowledge  of  either  Sanskrit  or  Arabic.  But 
I have  done  what  I could  to  form  a correct  estimate  of  their 
value.  I have  read  translations  of  the  most  celebrated  Arabic 
and  Sanskrit  works.  I have  conversed,  both  here  and  at 
home,  with  men  distinguished  by  their  proficiency  in  the 
Eastern  tongues.  I am  quite  ready  to  take  the  Oriental 
learning  at  the  valuation  of  the  Orientalists  themselves.  I 
have  never  found  any  one  among  them  who  could  deny  that 
a single  shelf  of  a g6od  European  library  was  worth  the  whole 
native  literature  of  India  and  Arabia. 

“ It  is,  I believe,  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  all  the  his- 
torical information  which  has  been  collected  from  all  the 
books  written  in  the  Sanskrit  language  is  less  valuable  than 
what  may  be  found  in  the  most  paltry  abridgments  used  at 
preparatory  schools  in  England.  In  every  branch  of  physi- 
cal or  moral  philosophy  the  relative  position  of  the  two 
nations  is  nearly  the  same. 

. . . “Whoever  knows  that  language  (English),  has  ready 
access  to  all  the  vast  intellectual  wealth  which  all  the  wisest 
nations  of  the  earth  have  created  and  hoarded  in  the  course 
of  ninety  generations.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  litera- 
ture now  extant  in  that  language,  is  of  far  greater  value  than 
all  the  literature  which,  three  hundred  years  ago,  was  extant 
in  all  the  languages  of  the  world  together. 

“ Nor  is  this  all  . . . It  is  likely  to  become  the  language 
of  commerce  throughout  the  seas  of  the  East.  It  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  two  great  European  communities  which  are 
rising,  the  one  in  the  South  of  Africa,  the  other  in  Australasia ; 
communities  which  are  every  year  becoming  more  important, 
and  more  closely  connected  with  our  Indian  Empire. 

“Whether  we  are  looking  at  the  intrinsic  value  of  our  lit- 


mSl'ORY  AND  DEVEL0PMEN7' 


37 


219] 

erature,  or  at  the  particular  situation  of  this  country,  we  shall 
see  the  strongest  reason  to  think  that,  of  all  foreign  tongues, 
the  English  tongue  is  that  which  would  be  the  most  useful 
to  our  native  subjects.” 

Lord  Bentinck’s  Miuute  of  Lord  Macaulay,  though  con- 

Proclamation,  1835.  taining  a prejudiced  estimate  of  Sanskrit  liter- 
ature, remains  a model  of  comprehensive  reasoning,  and  it 
settled  the  question  so  long  debated.  Its  conclusion  was 
endorsed  by  Lord  Bentinck,  who  issued,  in  the  same  year, 
(1835),  a proclamation  embodying  its  principle,  and  con- 
taining the  following  resolutions : 

1.  That  the  chief  aim  of  the  educational  policy  of  Gov- 
ernment should  be  to  promote  a knowledge  of  European 
literature  and  science. 

2.  That,  henceforth,  no  more  stipends  should  be  conferred, 
but  that  all  existing  stipends  should  be  maintained,  and  all 
the  Oriental  Colleges  should  be  continued  as  long  as  the 
natives  continued  to  avail  themselves  of  them. 

3.  That  the  printing  of  Oriental  books  should  at  once 
cease,  and 

4.  That  the  funds  thus  set  free  should  be  employed  in 
promoting  European  studies,  through  the  medium  of  the 
English  language,  and  that  the  Committee  should  at  once 
submit  to  Government  a scheme  for  effecting  this  purpose. 

P esults  of  the  The  immediate  effect  of  Lord  Bentinck’s 

Proclamation.  Proclamation  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  publica- 
tion of  Oriental  books,  and  to  the  granting  of  stipends  to 
students,  although  some  of  the  latter  did  not  lapse  for  some 
time.  The  direct  though  more  distant  results  of  the  Procla- 
mation were  the  establishment  of  new  schools  where  English 
was  taught,  and  the  flocking  to  them  of  large  numbers  of 
students.  There  was  an  intellectual  stir  abroad.  Men  were 
eager  to  learn  and  to  teach.  English  schools  sprang  up  on 
all  sides.  It  was  said  that  whereas  the  Sanskrit  Colleges 


38 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[220 

had  been  almost  entirely  confined  to  Brahmans,  now  Chris- 
tian, IMuhammadan  and  Hindu  boys  of  every  variety  of 
descent  might  have  been  seen  standing,  side  by  side,  in  the 
same  class,  under  the  common  inspiration  of  English  learn- 
ingd  As  an  instance,  it  is  recorded  that  when  the  Hoogly 
College  was  opened  in  1836,  1,200  names  were  enrolled  in 
the  first  three  days;  and  an  auxiliary  school  was  immedi- 
ately filled.  In  1843  there  were  51  schools  and  colleges, 
containing  8,200  scholars,  of  whom  5,132  were  studying 
English,  426  Sanskrit,  572  Arabic,  and  706  Persian.  Such 
was  the  effect  of  substituting  English  for  Sanskrit  and 
Arabic. 

Restorntion  of  Funds  Nevertheless,  these  languages,  while  not  a 
to  Orientaha,  1839.  gyi^able  medium  for  general  education,  were 
of  paramount  literary  and  philological  importance,  and 
possessed  peculiar  claims  on  the  land  where  they  had  been 
so  long  studied.  These  claims  were  too  great,  indeed,  to  be 
entirely  neglected,  as  they  bade  fair  to  be  at  this  time.  Their 
claims  were  again  recognized  by  Lord  Auckland  in  1839. 
A Minute  of  that  year  restored  to  Oriental  education  a con- 
siderable grant,  Rs.  25,000,  which  had  been  alienated  from 
it,  and  its  future  became  thereby  more  assured. 

™ . It  was  said  that  Lord  Bentinck’s  Procla- 

and  Anglicists.  matioii  put  to  sleep  one  controversy  only  to 

arouse  another.  This  was  the  controversy  between  the  Ver- 
nacularists  and  the  Anglicists ; and  this  was  not  decided 
until  the  end  of  this  period,  in  1854. 

Mr.  Hodgson.  During  the  years  1835-43  the  cause  of  the 
Vernaculars  was  championed  by  Mr.  Hodgson,  the  eminent 
Sanskritist,  who,  during  his  official  residency  at  Nepal,  had 
discovered  so  many  Buddhist  IMSS.  under  the  Himalayas. 
In  his  opinion,  the  learned  languages  had  proved  a curse  to 
India.  The  tyranny  of  the  learned  class  had  been  perpetu- 

^ Trevelyan.  History  of  Education  in  India,  p.  20. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


39 


221] 

ated  by  keeping  all  knowledge  locked  up  in  a sacred 
language.  By  this  means  all  the  moral  effects  of  knowledge 
applied  to  every-day  life  had  been  lost.  The  only  remedy 
that  remained,  in  Mr.  Hodgson’s  view,  was  to  found  Normal 
Schools  to  train  up  a body  of  teachers  competent  to  impart 
European  knowledge  through  native  languages. 

Sir  Charles  Opposed  to  tliis  view  was  that  of  the  Anglicists, 

Trevelyan,  fed  by  Sir  Cliarlcs  Trevelyan,  who  held  that  the 
best  policy  was  to  push  on  the  English  studies  and  thus 
create  a highly  educated  class  who  would  in  turn  spread 
the  desire  for  knowledge  to  the  class  beneath  them. 
While  the  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  Committee  were 
limited,  it  was  the  best  course,  first,  to  train  up  a class  of 
teachers,  translators  and  authors.  This  was  the  celebrated 
“ Filtering  Down  Theory.”  It  was  hoped  that  it  would  serve 
as  a system  of  channels  for  distributing,  instead  of  a dam  for 
confining  the  waters  of  knowledge.  This  was,  of  course, 
expecting  too  much  from  the  expansiveness  of  European 
knowledge,  but  it  prevailed  at  the  time. 

Little  now  remains  to  be  said  concerning  Govern- 

Councils  of 

Education,  iTient  education  during  this  period.  In  1843  “ Coun- 
cils  of  Education  ” were  created  in  three  Presidencies, 
to  take  the  place  of  the  former  “ Committees  of  Public  In- 
struction.” The  new  body  continued  the  traditional  policy  of 
establishing  Zillah,  or  District,  Schools. 

Government  ^ ^44r  Lord  Haidingc  issued  a Proclama- 

Examinations,  1844.  tiou,  the  object  of  which  was  to  establish 
yearly  examinations,  open  to  all  comers,  the  results  of  which 
would  determine  Government  in  the  selection  of  its  Civil 
Servants,  a place  in  it  being  thus  a guarantee  of  capacity. 
The  total  result  of  this  measure  was  insignificant.  In  nine 
years  only  ten  certificated  students  had  obtained  offices 
under  Government. 


40 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[222 


Mr.  Thomasen  and 


In  1845,  ^ to  encourage  native  village 

Village  Schools,  1845.  schools  was  Set  on  foot  by  Mr.  Thomasen, 
Governor  of  the  Northwest  Provinces.  This  plan  involved  the 
establishment  of : 

1.  An  Elementary  School  for  Circles  of  Villages,  each 
school  to  be  situated  in  a central  village,  and  no  village  to  be 
more  than  one  mile  from  the  Central  School. 

2.  A Middle  School  at  the  headquarters  of  each  sub- 
division. 

3.  A High  School  in  each  Zillah,  or  District. 

This  plan  was  sanctioned  by  the  Directors,  and  a large 
yearly  expenditure  of  Rs.  500,000  allowed. 

1850-4.  Operations  began  in  1850,  and  by  1854  these 
schools  existed  in  eight  Districts,  and  had  become  largely 
the  PLducational  System  of  the  Province. 

Other  over  the  development  of  education  in 

Provinces.  Other  Provittces,  or  Presidencies,  in  this  period, 

as  it  does  not  seem  to  have  resulted  in  characteristic  move- 
ments of  such  importance  as  to  justify  our  lingering  over 
them. 

Missionary  oiily  remains  for  us  to  review,  briefly,  the  mis- 

Education.  sioiiary  education  of  this  period.  At  its  close,  in 
the  year  1852-53,  there  were  in  Government  schools  about 
28,000  children  receiving  instruction,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
the  Protestant  missionaries  were  teaching  nearly  100,000.' 

The  two  systems  differed  widely,  also,  in 

systems  differed.  Character.  The  State  schools  were  almost 

entirely  secondary,  while  the  private  schools  were,  to  a large 
extent,  primary.  It  was  not  true,  however,  that  there  was  no 
secondary  education  carried  on  by  the  missionaries.  Prob- 
ably over  12,000  scholars  were  in  their  high  schools  and 
colleges.  Some  of  the  latter,  such  as  the  Serampore  Col- 
lege, the  General  Assembly’s  schools  at  Bombay  and  Cal- 

’ Parliamentary  Reports  for  1852. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


223] 


41 


cutta,  and  Dr.  Duff’s  Free  Kirk  College,  were  held  in  very- 
high  estimation. 

(2)  Again,  while  in  Government  schools  there  was  no 
trace  of  female  education,  the  missionaries  were  teaching 
over  13,000  girls. 

(3)  With  regard  to  the  support  of  these  schools,  it  is 
claimed  that  fees  were  exacted  in  all  State  schools,  which  was 
not  the  case  in  those  maintained  by  missionary  societies. 
This  led,  naturally,  to  a distinct  difference  in  the  social  posi- 
tion of  the  pupils,  so  far  as  wealth  was  concerned. 

General  Character  With  regard  to  the  general  character  of  the 
ofEducation.  schools  during  the  second  period,  we  may  con- 
clude that  science  was  not  practically  taught,  and  that  in 
other  subjects,  while  a fair  amount  was  learned,  there  were 
no  opportunities  for  original  work,  and  that  the  range  of 
examination  was  too  wide  to  permit  reading  outside  of  the 
set  books.  • 


CHAPTER  III 


Third  Period,  18^4.-82 


Charter  of  1853. 


As  the  previous  period  was  largely  formative  in  its  char- 
acter, and  of  great  significance  because  of  the  initiatory 
nature  of  the  questions  decided,  the  period  under  present 
review  is  one  of  organization.  The  experience  and  conclusions 
of  the  past  led  to  the  adoption  of  a definite  system  of  educa- 
tion, which  became  a separate  department  of  Government. 

In  the  year  1853  the  East  India  Company’s 
Charter  again  expired.  The  customary  Lords’ 
Committee  was  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  recommending 
such  modifications  or  additions  as  might  be  thought  neces- 
sary to  introduce  into  the  renewed  charter.  Undoubtedly, 
the  most  important  of  all  the  subjects  which  were  discussed 
before  this  Committee  was  that  of  education. 

Evidence  was  taken  from  such  authorities  on 
Indian  questions  as  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan, 
the  Honorables  George  Norton  and  C.  H.  Cameron,  and 
Drs.  Duff,  Wilson  and  Marshman,  men  who  had  had  long 
experience  in  dealing  practically  with  educational  questions 
in  the  three  great  Presidencies  of  Bengal,  Bombay  and 
Madras. 


The  general  results  of  the  evidence  taken 
Despatch  of  18^4.  Lords’  Committee  were  compacted 

and  formulated  in  the  Court  of  Directors’  Despatch  of  1854, 
drawn  up  by  Sir  Charles  Wood,  and  constituting  the  great 
Charter  of  Indian  Education.  On  that  Despatch  the  whole 
of  the  immense  system  now  in  existence  is  based.  This 
document  is  a long  one,  extending  through  25  finely 
42  [224 


225] 


HIS  TOR  Y A iVD  DE  VEL  0PM EH  T 


43 


printed  octavo  pages.  It  is  of  such  importance  to  India  in 
particular,  and  to  students  of  education  in  general,  that  we 
give  here  its  introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs,  and 
quote  in  extenso  an  authoritative  summary  of  its  contents,  as 
given  in  the  Report  of  the  Indian  Education  Commission  of 
1882. 


“ It  appears  to  us  that  the  present  time,  when, 

Introduction.  ^ 1 t • 1 t • 1 1 

by  an  Act  of  the  Imperial  Legislature,  the  respon- 
sible trust  of  the  Government  of  India  has,  again,  been 
placed  in  our  hands,  is  peculiarly  suitable  for  the  review 
of  the  progress  which  has  already  been  made,  the  supply  of 
the  existing  deficiencies,  and  the  adoption  of  such  improve- 
ments as  may  be  best  calculated  to  secure  the  ultimate 
benefit  of  the  people  committed  to  our  charge. 

“ Among  many  subjects  of  importance,  none  can  have  a 
stronger  claim  to  our  attention  than  that  of  education.  It  is 
one  of  our  most  sacred  duties  to  be  the  means,  as  far  as  in  us 
lies,  of  conferring  upon  the  natives  of  India  those  vast  moral 
and  material  blessings  which  flow  from  the  general  diffusion 
of  useful  knowledge,  and  which  India  may,  under  Providence, 
derive  from  her  connection  with  England.  For,  although 
British  influence  has  already,  in  many  remarkable  instances, 
been  applied,  with  great  energy  and  success,  to  uproot 
demoralizing  practices,  and  even  crimes  of  a deeper  dye, 
which,  for  ages,  had  prevailed  among  the  natives  of  India, 
the  good  results  of  those  effects  must,  in  order  to  be  perma- 
nent, possess  the  further  sanction  of  a general  sympathy  in 
the  native  mind,  which  the  advance  of  education  alone  can 
secure. 

“ We  have,  moreover,  always  looked  upon  the  encourage- 
ment of  education  as  peculiarly  important,  because  calculated 
not  only  to  produce  a higher  degree  of  intellectual  fitness, 
but  to  raise  the  moral  character  of  those  who  partake  of  its 
advantages,  and  so  to  supply  you  with  servants  to  whose 


44 


EDUCAl'lON  IX  INDIA 


[226 

probity  you  may,  with  increased  confidence,  commit  offices 
of  trust,’  in  India,  where  the  well-being  of  the  people  is  so 
intimately  connected  with  the  truthfulness  and  ability  of 
officers  of  every  grade  in  all  departments  of  the  State.” 

“ We  believe  that  the  measures  we  have  deter- 
mined upon  are  calculated  to  extend  the  benefits  of 
education  throughout  India  ; but,  at  the  same  time,  we  must 
add  that  we  are  not  sanguine  enough  to  expect  any  sudden, 
or  even  speedy,  results  to  follow  from  their  adoption.  To 
imbue  a vast  and  ignorant  population  with  a general  desire 
for  knowledge,  and  to  take  advantage  of  that  desire  when 
excited  to  improve  the  means  of  diffusing  education  amongst 
them,  must  be  a work  of  many  years,  which,  by  the  blessing 
of  Divine  Providence,  may  largely  conduce  to  the  intellectual 
improvement  of  the  mass  of  the  natives  of  India. 

“As  a Government,  we  can  do  no  more  than  direct  the 
efforts  of  the  people,  and  aid  them  wherever  they  appear  to 
require  most  assistance.  Ihe  result  depends  more  upon  them 
than  upon  us.  And,  although  we  are  fully  aware  that  the 
measures  we  have  now  adopted  will  involve,  in  the  end,  a 
much  larger  expenditure  upon  education  from  the  revenues  of 
India,  or,  in  other  words,  from  the  taxation  of  the  people  of 
India,  than  is  at  present  so  applied,  we  are  convinced  that 
any  expense  which  may  be  incurred  for  this  object  will  be 
amply  repaid  by  the  improvement  of  the  country ; for  the 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  inseparably  followed  by 
more  orderly  habits,  by  increasing  industry,  by  a taste  for 
the  comforts  of  life,  by  exertion  to  acquire  them,  and  by  the 
growing  prosperity  of  the  people.” 

Summary  of  Summary  of  the  Despatch  of  1854,  as 

Despatch  of  1854.  taken  from  the  Report  of  the  Education  Com- 
mission, is  as  follows: 

“ The  Despatch  of  1854  commends  to  the  special  attention 

1 Public  Letter  to  Bengal,  5th  Sept.,  1827. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


45 


227] 

of  the  Government  of  India  the  improvement  and  far  wider 
extension  of  education,  both  English  and  vernacular,  and 
prescribes  as  the  means  of  the  attainment  of  these  objects: 

1.  The  constitution  of  a separate  Department  of  the  Ad- 
ministration, for  Education. 

2.  The  institution  of  Universities  at  the  Presidency  towns. 

3.  The  establishment  of  institutions  for  training  teachers, 
for  all  classes  of  schools. 

4.  The  maintenance  of  the  existing  Government  colleges 
and  high  schools,  and  the  increase  of  their  number  when 
necessary. 

5.  The  establishment  of  new  middle  schools. 

6.  Increased  attention  to  vernacular  schools,  indigenous 
or  other,  for  elementary  education. 

7.  The  introduction  of  a system  of  grants-in-aid. 

Popular  **  attention  of  the  Government  is  especially 

Education,  directed  to  the  importance  of  placing  means  of 
acquiring  useful  and  practical  knowledge  within  the  reach  of 
the  great  mass  of  people.  The  English  language  is  to  be 
the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  higher  branches,  and  the 
vernacular  in  the  lower.  English  is  to  be  taught  whenev^er 
there  is  a demand  for  it,  but  it  is  not  to  be  substituted  for 
the  vernacular  languages  of  the  country. 

“ The  system  of  grants-in-aid  is  to  be  based 

Grants  m Aid.  principle  of  perfect  religious  neutrality. 

Aid  is  to  be  given  (so  far  as  available  funds  may  render  it 
possible)  to  all  schools  imparting  a good  secular  education, 
provided  they  are  under  adequate  local  management,  and 
subject  to  Government  inspection,  and  provided  that  fees, 
however  small,  are  charged  in  them. 

“ No  Government  colleges  or  schools  are  to  be  founded 
where  a sufficient  number  of  institutions  exist,  capable  with 
the  aid  of  Government,  of  meeting  the  local  demand  for 
education ; but  new  schools  and  colleges  are  to  be  estab- 


46  EDUCATION  JN  INDIA 

lished  and  temporarily  maintained  where  there  is  little  or  no 
prospect  of  adequate  local  support  being  made  to  meet  local 
requirement.  The  discontinuance  of  any  general  system  of 
education  entirely  provided  by  Government,  is  anticipated 
with  the  gradual  advance  of  the  system  of  grants-in-aid  ; but 
the  progress  of  education  is  not  to  be  checked  in  the  slight- 
est degree  by  the  abandonment  of  a single  school  to  prob- 
able decay. 

Scholarships  ^ ^ com preheiisivc  system  of  scholarships  is  to 
be  instituted,  so  as  to  connect  lower  schools  with 
higher,  and  higher  schools  with  colleges. 

Female  “ Female  education  is  to  receive  the  frank  and 
Education,  cordial  support  of  Government. 

Government  “ The  principal  officials  in  every  district  are  re- 
Cooperation.  quired  to  aid  in  the  extension  of  education ; and 
in  making  appointments  to  posts  in  the  service  of  Govern- 
ment, a person  who  has  received  a good  education  is  to  be 
preferred  to  one  who  has  not.  Even  in  lower  situations,  a 
man  who  can  read  and  write  is,  if  equally  eligible  in  other 
respects,  to  be  preferred  to  one  who  can  not.” 

Despatch  of  1859  Anotlicr  important  educational  paper  was 
(Lord Stanley.)  issued  by  the  India  office  in  1859,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  set  forth  in  its  introductory  paragraph : 

“The  time  seems  to  have  arrived  when  some  examination 
may  be  instituted  into  the  operation  of  the  orders  despatched 
from  this  country  in  1854,  for  the  prosecution  of  measures 
on  a more  extended  scale  for  promoting  education  in  India. 

“Such  an  examination  seems  more  especially  required 
since  the  measures,  and  particularly  the  more  recent  meas- 
ures, of  Government  for  the  promotion  of  education  have 
been  alleged  to  be  among  the  causes  which  have  brought 
about  the  recent  outbreak  in  the  army  of  Bengal,  and  the 
disquietude  and  apprehension  which  are  believed  to  have 
prevailed  in  some  portions  of  Her  Majesty’s  Indian  terri- 
tories.” 


229] 


H/ STORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


47 


This  Despatch  is  summarized  by  the  Education 
Summary,  Jq 1 882,  ill  its  report,  in  the  following 

terms : 

“The  second  great  Despatch  on  Education,  that  of  1859, 
reviews  the  progress  made  under  the  earlier  Despatch,  which 
it  reiterates  and  confirms,  with  a single  exception,  as  to  the 
course  adopted  for  promoting  elementary  education.  While 
it  records  with  satisfaction  that  the  system  of  grants-in-aid 
has  been  freely  accepted  by  private  schools,  both  English 
and  Anglo-Vernacular,  it  notes  that  the  native  community 
have  failed  to  co-operate  with  Government  in  promoting 
elementary  vernacular  education. 

EUmentary  Vemacu-  “ Thc  efforts  of  educatioiial  officers  to  obtain 
lar  Education.  ncccssary  local  support  for  the  establish- 

ment of  vernacular  schools,  under  the  grants-in-aid  sys- 
tem, are,  it  points  out,  likely  to  create  a prejudice  against 
education,  to  render  the  Government  unpopular,  and  even 
to  compromise  its  dignity.  The  soliciting  of  contributions 
from  the  people  is  declared  inexpedient,  and  strong  doubts 
are  expressed  as  to  the  suitableness  of  the  grants-in-aid 
system,  as  hitherto  in  force,  for  the  supply  of  vernacular 
education  to  the  masses  of  the  population.  Such  vernacu- 
lar instruction  should,  it  is  suggested,  be  provided  by  the 
direct  instrumentality  of  the  officers  of  government,  on  the 
basis  of  some  one  of  the  plans  already  in  operation  for  the 
improvement  of  indigenous  schools,  or  by  any  modification 
of  those  plans  which  may  suit  the  circumstances  of  different 
Provinces.  The  expediency  of  imposing  a spe- 
cial rate  on  the  land  for  the  provision  of  ele- 
mentary education  is,  also,  commended  to  the  careful  con- 
sideration of  Government.” 

Other  important  Despatches,  such  as  those  of 
864  and  1866,  by  Sir  Charles  Wood  and  Lord 
Ripon,  respectively,  have  been  issued  since  1859.  “But  the 


Special  Rates. 


Other  Despatches. 


48 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[230 

Dispatches  of  1854  and  1859,”  the  Commission  states,  “stand 
out  from  all  later  documents  as  the  fundamental  Codes  on 
which  Indian  Education  rests.” 

The  subjects  which  we  shall  now  take  up,  as 

The  Subjects. 

suggested  by  these  two  Despatches  of  1854  and 
1859  are:  The  Government  Revenue  for  Education  and 
Grants-in-Aid  to  the  Schools,  the  Universities  and  Colleges, 
and  Secondary  and  Primary  Schools.  This  constituted  the 
organization  which  was  the  special  work  of  this  period,  and 
which  was  not  completed  till  its  close.  But  in  all  essentials, 
it  was  contained  in  these  Despatches. 

The  Revenues  are  derived  from  Imperial  Grants 
and  Provincial  Revenues,  Local  and  Municipal 
P'unds,  and  Subscriptions  and  Donations. 

The  Imperial  Government  has  no  direct  connec- 
' tion  with  education,  and  the  Provincial  Govern- 
ments are  practically  autonomous  in  this  as  in  other  respects. 
Their  revenues  consist  partly  of  local  contributions  and  partly 
of  an  assigned  portion  of  the  imperial  revenue.  The  disposal 
of  provincial  grants  rests  entirely  with  provincial  authorities. 
The  Local  Fund  taxes  are  levied  by  the  Provincial 
’ Government.  The  rate  differs  in  the  different  prov- 
inces. It  amounts  in  most  provinces  to  i per  cent,  on  the 
land  revenue. 

The  Municipal  Fund  contributions  are  to  the 

Municipal.  what  the  local  taxes  are  to  the  country,  since 

the  latter  are  imposed  on  land  only.  About  per  cent, 
of  the  total  revenue  is  obtained  in  this  way. 

Subscriptions  and  donations  include  endowments,  private 
subscriptions,  and  the  cost  of  the  missionary  and  other 
aided  schools  above  receipts.  This  amounts  to  about  17 
per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

These  revenues  in  1882  amounted,  in  all,  to  Rs. 

Summary.  while  in  1 85 3 oiily  Rs.  1,000,000  was 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


49 


231] 

spent  on  education.  In  the  same  period  the  grants  had  in- 
creased in  the  ratio  of  one  to  ten,  while  the  children  receiving 
education  had  increased  in  number  from  30,000  to  3,000,000. 

Grants-in-Aid  were  one  of  the  chief  features  of 
c;rafi^s  tn  Dospatchof  1854.  It  was  hoped  that  with 

the  gradual  advance  of  the  system  of  Grants-in-Aid,  the 
time  might  come  when  any  general  system  of  education, 
provided  entirely  by  Government,  might  be  discontinued, 
and  when  many  of  the  existing  government  institutions 
might  be  safely  closed,  or  transferred  to  the  management  of 
local  bodies  under  the  control  of,  and  aided  by,  the  State. 

Rules  for  the  distribution  of  this  grant  were  pub- 
^"**^*‘ lished  in  1855  and  revised  in  1858  and  1865.  The- 
conditions  of  the  grant  were  the  admission  of  the  govern- 
ment inspectors,  permission  to  examine  the  books,  accounts, 
registers,  etc. 

There  was  a lack  of  uniformity  in  the  assignment  of  the 
grants,  and  no  less  than  five  systems  were  in  operation. 

The  Salary  Grant  System,  confined  to  Madras, 
Salary  rant.  applied  Only  to  secondary  education.  On 

this  system  a fixed  proportion  of  the  salary  of  the  teacher 
was  contributed  by  Government  in  accordance  with  his  gen- 
eral and  professional  attainments. 

The  ResiUts  Grants  System  was  customary  in 
Results  rant.  of  primary  education  in  Madras,  and 

secondary  in  Bombay.  This  grant  was  assigned  on  the  con- 
dition of  passing  the  government  examinations  and  was 
graded  to  the  subject.  It  had  the  merit  of  securing  ener- 
getic work  and  of  preventing  fraud. 

The  combined  Salary- Results  System,  which 

Combined  Grant.  . i i i 

insured  stability  and  supplied  a motive,  was 
applied  to  only  a few  primary  schools  under  local  boards. 

The  Fixed  Period  System  prevailed  in  almost  the 
Fixed  Period,  of  Nortliem  aiid  Central  India.  On  this 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


50 


[232 


basis  an  average  grant  was  paid  for  periods  of  3 or  5 
years. 

The  Capitative  System  was  applied  to  a few 

Capitative  Grant.  . , , , i i 

girls  schools  in  Bengal. 

Summarizing  the  effects  of  this  aided  system, 

Effects  of  System.  i i i • 

we  see  that  the  three  most  important  rrovinces 
showed  considerable  difference.  While  in  Bengal  almost  all 
primary  education  was  aided,  in  Bombay  nearly  the  whole 
was  managed  by  the  department.  Again,  while  in  Bombay 
and  Madras  instruction  was  given,  directly  and  indirectly,  to 
about  the  same  number  of  children,  the  former  had  only 
about  20,000  children  in  aided  schools ; the  latter,  ten  times 
that  number. 

The  results  for  all  India  were  as  follows : 

1,150,000  children  were  in  aided  primary;  111,000 
were  in  aided  secondary  schools,  the  former  number  repre- 
senting nearly  57^  per  cent.;  the  latter  53^  per  cent,  of 
the  total  number  of  children  under  elementary  and  second- 
ary instruction,  respectively.  The  total  cost  to  the  State  was 
about  18  lakhs  of  rupees. 

In  the  same  year,  1881-82,  over  67  lakhs  were  being  ex- 
pended on  the  education  of  850,000  scholars  in  State  schools 
and  colleges. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  system  of  grants-in- 
Satisfactor> . proved  an  immense  success.  On  no  other 

proposed  system  could  such  a great  extension  of  range  have 
been  effected  in  so  short  a time  and  at  so  slight  an  expense.  No 
other  system  could,  by  the  expenditure  of  about  18  lakhs  per 
annum,  have  attracted  to  the  cause  of  education  private 
contributions  in  a yearly  amount  of  about  60  lakhs  of  rupees. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  Despatch  of  1854 

The  Universities.  ... 

sanctioned  the  founding  of  Universities.  The 
The  Model.  model  was  to  be  the  University  of  London,  as  the 
best  adapted  to  the  wants  of  India,  and  the  one  that  might  be 


5 


233] 


HIST  OR  V AJVD  DE  VEL  OPMENT 


followed  with  advantage,  although  some  variation  would  be 
found  necessary  in  points  of  detail.  The  standard 

The  Standard.  *1,1  1.1 

required  for  a degree  was  to  be  “ such  as  to  com- 
mand respect,  without  discouraging  the  efforts  of  deserving 
students.’'  In  the  competition  for  honors,  “ care  was  to  be 
taken  to  maintain  such  a standard  as  will  afford  a guarantee  for 
high  ability  and  high  attainments  ; the  subjects  for  examina- 
tion being  so  selected  as  to  include  the  best  portions  of  the 
different  schemes  of  study  pursued  at  the  affiliated  institu- 
tions.” 


The  Senate. 


Under  Acts  of  Incorporation  II.,  XXII.  and 
Th«  Foundation,  Universities  of  Cal- 

cutta,  Bombay  and  Madras  were  founded.  Two  other 
Universities  have  since  been  founded:  at  Punjab,  in  1882, 
and  Allahabad,  in  1887. 

The  Universities  consist  of  a Chancellor,  the 
Governor  of  the  Presidency  ex-officio,  a Vice- 
Chancellor,  and  not  less  than  thirty  Fellows,  who  constitute 
a Senate.  The  Senates  have  the  management  of  the  funds 
of  the  universities,  frame  regulations,  subject  to  Government 
approval,  under  which  periodical  examinations  are  held  in 
the  different  branches  of  art  and  science  by  examiners 
selected  from  their  own  body,  or  nominated  from  without 
by  them. 


The  Senate  is  divided  into  four  Faculties, 

The  Faculties.  , . ^ 

namely.  Arts,  Law,  Medicine  and  Engineering, 
and  every  Fellow  belongs  to  one  Faculty  at  least,  and  may 
belong  to  more  than  one. 

The  executive  government  of  the  University 

The  Syndicate.  , . 

is  vested  in  a Syndicate  consisting  of  the  Vice- 
Chancellor  and  eight  of  the  Fellows,  who  are  elected  for  one 
year  by  the  several  Faculties  in  the  following  proportions: 
Five  by  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 

One  by  the  Faculty  of  Law. 


52 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[234 


One  by  the  Faculty  of  Medicine. 

One  by  the  Faculty  of  Engineering. 

The  Syndicate  appoints  examiners  and  regu- 

Examiners.  , . . 

lates  examinations ; recommends  for  degrees, 
honors  and  rewards ; and  corresponds  on  the  business  of  the 
University. 

Boards  of  Studies  Syndicate  also  appoints,  from  among 

the  Fellows,  Boards  of  Studies  in  the  various 
branches  of  knowledge.  There  were  13  of  these  Boards  in 
1892. 

Registra  There  is  a Registrar  appointed  by  the  Senate, 
who  discharges  the  duties  of  this  office  under  the 
instructions  of  the  Syndicate. 

The  Fellows  do  not  correspond  to  the  idea  usually 

Fellows.  ^ ^ ^ 

associated  with  the  name  in  Great  Britain  and 
America.  The  office  is  an  honorary  one,  and  is  usually  con- 
ferred on  representative,  men  or  upon  those  who  have  been 
active  in  the  cause  of  education,  in  any  of  its  branches. 

In  agreement  with  their  London  model,  the 

Examinations. 

Indian  Universities,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Punjab,  are  without  a teaching  staff,  and  they  confine  them- 
selves, for  the  most  part,  to  holding  examinations  and  grant- 
ing degrees.  The  first  examination  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts 
is  that  for  matriculation  at  the  University.  It  is 

Matnculation. 

about  equal  in  requirements,  it  is  claimed,  to  the 
London  Matriculation  Examination.  The  subjects  of  exam- 
ination are;  i.  English.  2.  A classical  (Oriental  or  Euro- 
pean) or  vernacular  language.  3.  Physics  and  Chemistry. 
4.  History,  and  5.  Geography. 

Those  who  pass  the  matriculation  examination, 

irstm  rs.  intend  proceeding  further,  generally  enter 

an  affiliated  college  where  they  prepare  for  the  First  Exam- 
ination in  Arts — F.  A. — taken  in  Calcutta  and  Madras  after 
two  years  of  study  from  matriculation ; or,  the  Intermediate 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


53 


235] 

Examination  in  Bombay,  Punjab  and  Allahabad  after  one  year. 
The  subjects  are  : i English,  2 A classical  language,  (Oriental 
or  European)  or  a vernacular,  3 Logic,  4 Mathematics,  5 
History  and  Geography,  and  6 Physical  Science. 

Two  years  later  comes  the  B.  A.  examination. 

Bachelor  of  Arts. 

which  is  also  similar  in  standard  to  that  of  the 
London  B.  A.  This  has  two  branches,  the  Language  and 
the  Science  Divisions.  In  the  Language  Division,  the  sub- 
jects are:  i English,  2 A classical  language  (Oriental  or 
European)  or  a vernacular,  3 Mathematics,  and  4 and  5 any 
two  of  the  following.  Moral  Philosophy,  History  and  Ad- 
vanced Mathematics.  The  Science  Division  consists  of  i 
English,  2 Mathematics,  3 Chemistry,  4 Physical  Geography, 
with  5 either  Physics,  Physiology  or  Geology. 

The  M.  A.  is  an  honor  examination  in  Lan- 

Master  of  Arts. 

guage.  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  Mathe- 
matics, Natural  Science  or  History. 

Licentiate  In  addition  to  the  above,  a new  examination 
m Teaching,  recently  been  instituted  for  the  Degree  of 

Licentiate  in  Teaching,  L.  T.,  in  order  to  obtain  which,  can- 
didates must  have  graduated  from  a university,  and  must  be 
examined  in  the  Principles  and  History  of  Education  and 
Methods  of  Teaching,  and  also  as  to  their  practical  skill  in 
the  management  of  a class,  and  in  teaching. 

Law,  Medicine,  The  examinations  under  the  Faculties  of  Law, 
Engineering.  Mediciiic  and  Engineering  are  on  a different 
footing,  and  the  examinations  are  open  only  to  those  who 
have  passed  the  first  three  examinations  in  Arts,  in  the  case 
of  Law,  and  the  first  two  in  the  case  of  the  others.  Of  the 
three,  the  first.  Law,  attracts  by  far  the  largest  number  of 
students,  and  Engineering  the  least. 

The  Degrees  which  are  conferred  in  these  differ- 

The  Degrees.  PaculticS  are  I 

Bachelor  and  Master  of  Arts,  and  Bachelor  of  Science. 


54 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[236 


Licentiate,  Bachelor,  and  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Licentiate,  Bachelor  and  Master  of  Civil  Engineering. 

Licentiate  in  Teaching,  L.  T. 

Licentiate  in  Sanitary  Science,  L.  S.  Sc. 

The  value  of  these  degrees  is  fairly  uniform  in 

1 heir  Value.  1 1 t t • • • 111 

the  three  older  Universities,  and  on  the  whole  they 
denote  much  the  same  standard  of  attainments  as  do  those 
conferred  by  the  University  of  London.  That  the  standard 
is  as  high  as  the  needs  of  the  country  require  is  shown  by 
the  large  number  of  those  who,  content  with  passing  the 
First  Arts  examination,  fail  to  proceed  to  a Degree. 

Value  of  the  estimating  the  value  of  the  Universities,  we 

Universities,  must  not  lose  sight  of  their  original  aim.  They 
have  not  produced,  as  a rule,  great  scholars  or  scientists, 
although  in  recent  years  the  University  of  Bombay  has 
produced  a Senior  Wrangler  at  Cambridge,  the  University  of 
Madras  a First  Class  in  the  Cambridge  Historical  Tripos, 
and  the  University  of  Calcutta  a scholar  who  headed  the  list 
of  the  60  successful  competitors  in  the  Civil  Service  examina- 
tions held  in  England.  We  have  not  heard  of  many  great 
discoveries  made  by  Hindus,  although  again,  in  this  decade, 
a Hindu  graduate  has  been  receiving  the  highest  honors  of 
the  English  and  French  Scientific  Societies  for  the  value  of 
his  scientific  researches.  Very  few  pursue  their  studies  for 
the  love  of  knowledge,  and  apart  from  any  mercenary  desires. 
The  wealthier  classes  and  the  great  landed  proprietors  are 
scarcely  represented.  These  results,  however,  the  Universi- 
ties did  not,  and  could  not,  constituted  as  they  were,  aim  at 
effecting.  But  they  have  consolidated  the  education  going 
on  throughout  the  empire,  provided  examinations  requiring 
a considerable  amount  of  knowledge,  and  recognized  its 
possession  by  a degree. 

Notwithstanding  the  absence  of  an  organized 
The  Colleges.  Hgency  within  itself,  the  Indian  Uni- 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


55 


237] 

versity  is  more  than  a mere  examining  and  degree-conferring 
body.  In  the  By-Laws  and  Regulations  of  the  Universities, 
Affiliation  with  ^^ere  are  “ Rules  of  Affiliation/’  by  means  of 
the  Universities.  Yvhich  Institutions,  or  Departments  of  Institu- 
tions, may  be  affiliated  to  the  University  in  Arts,  Law, 
Medicine,  and  Civil  Engineering. 

In  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  institutions  are  affiliated  as 
Second  Grade,  or  as  First  Grade  Colleges,  the  former 
being  entitled  to  enter  students  for  the  First  Arts  examina- 
tion only,  the  latter  for  both  the  First  Arts  and  the  B.  A. 
degree  examinations. 

In  the  Faculty  of  Law,  affiliated  institutions  are 

Law. 

entitled  to  enter  students  for  the  B.  L.  Degree 
Medicine.  examination;  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  for  the 
Medical  Degree  examinations,  and  in  the  Faculty 
Engineering,  of  Civil  Engineering  for  the  degree  examinations 
of  that  profession. 

Normal  institutions  are  also  affiliated  and  author- 
ized to  enter  students  for  the  L.  T.  degree  examina- 

nation. 

The  conditions  of  affiliation  have  reference 

(i)  To  general  and  professional  qualifications 

of  the  staff. 

(2)  To  the  financial  stability  of  the  institution. 

(3)  To  the  building  and  sanitary  accommodations;  and 

(4)  The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  furniture  and  appli- 
ances. 

In  1857,  the  year  of  the  founding  of  the  Universi- 
ties, there  existed  in  India  22  arts  and  two  profes- 
sional colleges.  In  1882,  the  closing  year  of  the  period  now 
under  review,  the  number  of  colleges  had  increased  to  59, 
thus  considerably  more  than  doubling  their  number  in  these 
25  years.  These  colleges  represent  the  teaching  part  of  the 
universities.  Their  position  corresponds  to  that  of  the  uni- 


56 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[238 


Studies. 


Professors. 


Students. 


Fees. 


versity  colleges  in  relation  to  the  University  of  London,  ex- 
cept as  regards  the  formality  of  affiliation.  In  general  char- 
acter, also,  it  is  claimed  that  they  are  on  a par  with  these 
institutions. 

The  plan  of  study  is,  of  course,  conditioned  by  the 
University  examinations,  though  there  are  very  few,  if 
any.  Colleges  where  all  the  subjects  for  the  diffierent  branches 
of  the  B.  A.  course  are  taught. 

The  Professors  and  Principals  are  largely  recruited 
from  England,  Scotland  and  America,  and,  so  far  as 
the  Government  Colleges  are  concerned,  they  are  subject  to 
frequent  transfers.  The  status  and  aim  of  the  stu- 
dents are  such  as  have  been  already  described.  The 
only  charge  on  them  is  for  fees,  which  vary  according 
to  the  character  of  the  College,  and  the  class  in  which 
they  are  studying,  from  Rs.  1 to  Rs.  12  per  mensem,  the 
highest  of  which  has  been  held  to  correspond  to  a tuition 
fee  of  ;^ioo  per  annum  in  England.'  These  fees,  together 
with  grants,  endowments  and  subscriptions,  supply  the  ex- 
penditure on  the  colleges. 

Value  of  the  estimation  in  which  the  colleges  are  held  is 

Colleges,  great.  Private  study  is  discouraged,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered very  desirable  to  receive  the  stamp  which  the  colleges 
are  supposed  to  impress.  Evidence  was  given  before  the 
Commission  of  1882  to  show  that  the  Colleges  and  the  Uni- 
versities had  tended  to  raise  the  moral  tone  of  the  commun- 
ity; that  the  native  bench  and  bar,  once  the  opprobrium  of 
educated  India,  had  acquired  a reputation  not  only  for  ability, 
but  for  trustworthiness  ; and  that  the  public  service  was  dis- 
tinguished for  intelligence,  industry  and  integrity. 

Stccndar,  I"  1 854,  the  opening  year  of  this  period,  there 
Education,  were  altogether  107  schools  for  secondary  educa- 
tion. At  the  conclusion  of  the  period,  1882,  the  numbers 
’ Sir  Roper  Lethbridge,  High  Education  in  India,  p.  107. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


57 


239] 

had  immensely  increased,  there  being  116  Departmental  or 
Government,  174  Aided,  and  88  Unaided  High  Schools, 
together  with  719  Departmental,  1576  Aided  and  572  Un- 
aided Middle  Schools.  Schools  for  secondary  instruction 
had,  therefore,  risen  from  T07  to  3245  within  the  twenty- 
five  years.  The  total  number  of  scholars  in  these  schools 
was,  in  1882,  about  215,000. 

The  High  Schools,  owing  to  their  close  connec- 
High  Schools.  \Y\t\i  the  Universities,  and  to  their  examina- 

tions, reached  a fairly  uniform  level.  The  highest  standard 
attained  is  that  of  the  University  matriculation  examination. 
At  this  period,  in  Madras,  the  Punjab,  and  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  the  High  Schools  contained  only  the  two  highest 
standards.  In  Bombay  they  embraced  four,  while  in  Bengal 
every  High  School  was  also  a Middle  and  an  Elementary 
School.  All  of  these,  however,  carried  education  two  years 
beyond  the  inferior  grade. 

The  Middle  Schools  were  of  two  kinds.  Either 

Middle  Schools. 

they  were  closely  connected  with  the  Pligh  Schools 
or  they  were  complete  in  themselves.  The  latter  was  the 
more  common  condition.  The  instruction  extended,  in 
most  Provinces,  over  three  standards,  immediately  below  the 
High  School.  These  Middle  Schools  were  again  divisible 
fnto  those  where  English  was,  and  those  where  it  was  not 
taught.  The  highest  standard  of  education  in  these  schools 
was  represented  by  the  Middle  School  examination,  which 
included  English,  a vernacular  language,  and  an  Oriental 
classical  language,  Mathematics,  Geography,  History,  and 
Elementary  Physical  Science. 

Secondary  schools  absorbed  about  one-fourth  of  the  total 
expenditure  on  education,  a part  being  made  up  of  fees,  sub- 
scriptions and  endowments. 

Primary  Comparing  the  opening  with  the  closing  year  of 
Education,  ^his  period,  we  find  in  the  matter  of  Primary  Educa- 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


58 


[240 


tion  also  an  enormous  increase.  In  1854-6  the  new  Depart-  j 
ment  of  Education  established  under  the  Despatch  of 

1857. 

1854,  received  the  care  of  the  following  pupils: 

( I ) From  the  Board  of  Education  of  Calcutta,  13,000  pupils. 

(2)  From  the  Board  of  Education  of  Bombay,  21,400  pupils. 

(3)  From  the  Board  of  Education  of  Madras,  4,500  pupils. 

(4)  From  the  Government  of  the  N.  W.  P.,  24,000  pupils. 

Of  this  total  of  63,000  in  government  schools,  probably 

only  a little  more  than  a half,  or  35,000  in  the  whole  of  India, 
were  receiving  a strictly  elementary  education.  In  mission- 
ary schools  primary  instruction  was  being  imparted  to  about 
70,000  children  in  all  the  provinces. 

In  the  year  1881-82  the  elements  were  being  taught 
in  83,416  public  elementary  schools  of  all  descriptions, 
to  a total  of  2,061,541  pupils. 

It  would  be  perhaps  useless  and  confusing  to  give 
’ the  details  of  this  growth  in  primary  education  in 
the  different  provinces  and  classes  of  schools,  or  the  methods 
by  which  this  enormous  increase  had  been  effected.  Speak- 
ing  generally,  the  methods  employed  were  two ; of  which 
one  followed  in  Bengal,  aimed  at  bringing  the  indigenous 
schools  into  more  or  less  close  connection  with  the  Depart- 
ment, while  the  other,  prevailing  in  Bombay,  Madras  and 
the  remaining  provinces,  involved  a system  of  local  rates. 
Under  the  former  there  was  little  scope  for  local  manage- 
ment ; but  of  the  latter  the  Local  Boards  were  an  essential 
feature. 

The  standards  of  instruction  in  the  different  prov- 
’ inces  were  diverse,  but  there  were  everywhere  two 
examinations,  the  Upper  Primary  and  the  Lower  Primary. 

In  general,  the  former  involved  reading  at  sight  in  the 
vernacular,  writing,  some  elementary  arithmetic 
‘and  a variety  of  optional  subjects,  such  as  his- 
tory, geography  and  elementary  physics.  The  Upper  Pri- 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


59 


241] 

mary  examination  followed  upon  the  Lower  after  one  year, 
and  added  proportionately  to  these  subjects,  and  in  some 
provinces  included  a little  English.  These  examinations  in 
1881-82  were  not  always  compulsory,  and  in  that  year  only 
about  one-fifth  of  the  total  number  of  scholars  of  that  grade 
were  presented  for  examination. 

Of  the  total  expenditure  on  primary  education, 
Expenditure.  onC'third  was  derived  from  rates,  and  about 

one-fourth  from  fees,  which  were,  for  obvious  reasons,  very 
small  for  primary  school  pupils. 

General  pci'iod  the  schools  and  col- 

ciassification.  feges  Connected  with  the  Departments  of  Edu- 
cation were  classified  as  follows : 

I.  University  Education  was  imparted  in : 

{a)  First  Grade  colleges,  where  the  limit  of  study  was 
the  B.  A.  examination. 

{b)  Second  Grade  colleges,  where  the  limit  of  study 
was  the  F.  A.  examination. 

II.  Secondary  Education  was  imparted  in: 

{^a)  High  schools,  up  to  the  matriculation  exam- 
ination. 

(b')  Middle  schools,  up  to  the  middle  school  exam- 
ination. 

These  schools  were  divided  into  those  in  which  English 
was  (Anglo-vernacular)  and  those  in  which  it  was  not  taught. 

III.  Primary  Education  was  imparted  in: 

(^)  Upper  Primary  schools,  teaching  to  the  upper 
primary  examination. 

(^)  Lower  Primary  schools,  teaching  to  the  lower 
primary  examination. 

This  classification  was  not  perfectly  carried  out  every- 
where. The  gradation  was  most  complete  in  Bengal  and 
Madras. 


6o 


EDUCA  riON  IN  INDIA 


[242 


Indigenous  Schools. 

Decrease.  cDormous  cxpansioii  of  Europcaii  education 

during  this  period  raises  the  inquiry  as  to  what  had  become 
of  the  indigenous  schools.  The  Government  inquiry  of 
1882  revealed  the  fact  that  there  were  only  350,000  boys  re- 
ceiving instruction  in  schools  of  native  origin  and  manage- 
ment, whereas  if  the  proportion  of  1830,  discovered  by  the 
State  inquiries  of  that  year,  had  been  maintained,  there 
would  have  been  four  times  that  number,  or  about  1,500,000. 

These  schools  had  disappeared  in  two  ways : by 
absorption  and  by  extinction.  In  Bengal  and 
Madras,  where  the  growth  of  primary  schools  had  been 
effected  by  the  plan  of  absorption,  of  ancient  native  schools, 
the  latter  may  be  said  to  have  still  existed  in  a changed 
form  ; but  a comparatively  small  part  of  the  native  system 
was  left  untouched,  so  that  in  Bengal  only  60,000  children, 
and  in  Madras  only  55,000,  remained  entirely  outside  of  the 
Department.  In  the  other  provinces,  where  the  opposite 
policy  of  extinction  was  followed,  the  comparatively  larger 
number  of  native  schools  represents  the  whole  of  what 
survived. 

An  examination  of  the  two  systems  of  State  and 
Indigenous  schools  will  soon  reveal  their  differences, 
and  show  the  respects  in  which  department  schools  were 
better  than  those  they  so  largely  supplanted. 

(i  ) The  indigenous  schools  possessed  the  tenacity  which 
was  peculiar  to  thoroughly  localized  institutions,  but  they 
were  liable  to  interruption  constantly  by  war  or  other  dis- 
turbances. 

( 2 ) The  modern  school  was  better  managed,  being  liable 
to  inspection,  and  better  taught,  since  the  teacher  held  a 
more  responsible  position,  and  the  curriculum  covered  a 
wider  range. 

(3)  The  buildings  and  equipment,  generally,  were  much 
improved  in  the  modern  school. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


6 


2 13] 

(4)  The  exclusion  of  low-castes  and  out-castes  was  discon- 
tinued. 

The  future  fate  of  these  indigenous  schools  is,  therefore, 
likely  to  be  absorption  or  extinction. 

Missionary  Education. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  previous  period,  1852,  we  found 
that  missionary  societies  were  teaching  nearly  100,000  chil- 
dren, of  whom  28,000  were  receiving  secondary  instruction. 
At  the  close  of  the  present  period,  1881-2,  this  total  had  in- 
creased to  nearly  200,000,  of  which  number  85,000  boys, 
• and  far  the  larger  number  of  47,000  girls,  belonged  to  the 
elementary  section.  In  the  385  colleges  and  secondary 
schools  maintained  by  these  missionary  societies,  there  were 
over  45,000  scholars.  There  is,  however,  an  interesting 
observation  to  be  made  in  regard  to  a decided  change  in  the 
application  of  missionary  effort  to  educational  work  in  this 
period.  While  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  number  of  scholars 
in  aided,  and  one-twentieth  of  the  total  number  in  primary 
, schools,  were  in  mission  schools,  about  one-third  of  the 
' number  in  aided  secondary,  and  about  one-sixth  of  the  total 
number  in  all  secondary  schools,  were  in  institutions  belong- 
: ing  to  missionary  societies.  The  mission  colleges  had  grown 
j to  be  numerous  and  important  in  this  period.  Some  of 
them,  such  as  the  colleges  of  the  General  Assembly  and 
I Free  Church  of  Scotland  at  Calcutta,  Madras  and  Bombay, 
rivalled  even  the  Presidency  colleges,  with  all  the  resources  of 
the  State  behind  them.  The  Cardinal  point  of  difference  be- 
tween the  missionary  and  the  State  institutions  was  that  in 
the  one  Christianity  was,  and  in  the  other  it  was  not,  taught, 

: although  for  obvious  reasons,  the  amount  of  religious  instruc- 

tion given  in  the  former  was  somewhat  restricted.  Mission- 
ary education  had,  by  the  close  of  this  period,  taken  the 
third  place,  in  point  of  numbers,  among  the  agencies  for 
raising  the  intellectual  condition  of  the  Hindus,  although,  in 


62 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[244 


general  efficiency,  as  well  as  in  expensiveness,  the  State 
schools  took  the  lead. 


Special  Education. 

We  must  close  the  story  of  the  development  of  education 
in  this  period  with  a brief  account  of  the  state  of  special  edu- 
cation. 


Normal  Nomial  cducatiou  was  the  subject  of  a special 
Education,  provisiou  in  the  Despatch  of  1854;  and  its  direc- 
tions were  so  far  followed  that,  at  the  close  of  this  period, 
nearly  one-half  of  the  teachers  in  Primary  Schools  under 
the  Department  were  certificated.  But  nowhere  were  there 
adequate  facilities  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  Secondary 
schools,  the  University  examinations  supplying,  as  in  Europe 
and  America,  at  that  time,  a test  of  capacity  regarded  as 
sufficient. 


Technical  Technical  education  was  represented  by  5 Schools 
Education,  of  Art,  1 8 Engineering  Schools  and  Colleges,  and 
12  Medical  Schools  and  Colleges.  There  was  no  general 
system  of  practical,  technical  or  industrial  education  such  as 
existed  in  parts  of  England. 

Aboriginal  Aboi'igines  consist  of  about  6,oco,ooo  of  wild 

Education,  pjjp  ti'ibcs,  of  uou-Aryau  descent.  The  difficulty  of 
dealing  with  these,  for  obvious  reasons,  is  very  great.  In  1 882, 
only  13,000  children  of  these  tribes  were  in  schools ; and, 
until  very  recently  the  Department  had  done  little  to  reach 
them.  Missionary  societies , were  at  work  among  them 
through  their  schools. 

Muhammadan  From  the  carlicst  days  of  government  educa- 
Education.  ^ion  great  difficulty  had  been  encountered  in  pre- 
vailing upon  the  Muhammadan  population  in  India,  which  is 
in  the  proportion  of  one  in  five  to  the  whole,  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  means  of  school  instruction.  This  reluctance 
is  partly  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  character  of  their  own 
instruction,  which  is  exclusively  religious,  with  the  Koran  as 


H1S70RY  AND  DEVELOPiVIENT 


63 


245] 

the  only  text-book,  and  partly  by  their  poverty  and  their 
love  of  the  military  profession.  In  1871  special  measures 
for  their  education  began  to  be  taken.  Schools  and  scholar- 
ships were  provided  for  Muhammadans,  and  Arabic  and 
Persian  were  encouraged  in  the  universities.  To  these 
special  schools  teachers  and  inspectors  of  the  same  creed 
were  appointed.  Everything  reasonable,  including  a fee 
which  was  only  one-half  of  that  usually  demanded  of  pupils, 
was  done  to  attract  Muhammadans  into  the  schools.  But, 
in  1882,  the  proportion,  while  increased,  was  found  to  be 
practically  confined  to  primary  schools.  A greater  pro- 
gress in  Muhammadan  education  is  observed  in  the  pro- 
vinces where  the  Musalman  population  is  largest,  and 
during  the  period  following  that  now  under  review. 

Female  Early  in  the  present  century  the  “ Union  School 
Education.  Socicty,”  at  Calcutta,  turned  its  attention  to  the 
education  of  women,  and  opened  a school  which  numbered 
about  200  girls.  In  1824  the  “Native  Female  Education 
Society”  arose,  and  also  founded  a school.  In  1849  another 
school  for  girls  was  established  in  Calcutta,  where  a few  girls 
of  high  caste  were  instructed.  But  the  missionaries  were  the 
most  active  in  behalf  of  women,  and,  in  1851,  they  had  about 
13,000  female  children  under  instruction.  In  1855  an  en- 
tirely new  scheme  was  adopted  on  the  initiative  of  the  Rev. 
W.  Forster,  a colleague  of  Dr.  Duff.  This  was  the  well- 
known  system  of  Zenana  Missions,  whereby  a number  of 
English  ladies  formed  themselves  into  societies  for  visiting 
Hindu  ladies  in  their  homes  and  giving  them  instruction. 
Some  of  these  missions  have  occasionally  received  aid  from 
Government  for  the  secular  department  of  this  work.  In 
1881-2  it  was  calculated  that  about  9,000  women  in  all 
India  were  being  taught  on  this  system  at  their  own  homes. 

But,  apart  from  these  Zenana  Missions,  there  was  a system 
of  Government  and  Aided  Schools  for  girls,  similar  in  char- 


64 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[246 

acter  to  those  for  boys.  In  1881-2  considerable  progress 
had  been  made  in  the  various  provinces,  and,  altogether, 
there  were  nearly  130,000  girls  under  instruction,  largely  in 
Elementary  Schools.  But,  of  the  whole  number  of  Hindu 
girls  of  school-going  age,  only  .85,  or  less  than  one  per  cent, 
were  at  school. 

We  have  now  described,  in  some  detail,  the 
elaborate  system  of  education  which  was  built  up. 
during  this  period  of  about  25  years,  from  1854  to  1881. 
Except  in  a few  points,  the  system  still  remains  unchanged. 
It  is  a vast  machine,  which  only  the  persistent  efforts  of  a 
large  number  of  able  men  could  have  succeeded  in  framing 
in  India.  It  is  not  yet  complete,  but  every  year  adds  to  its 
efficiency.  Complaints  are  freely  made  of  a tendency  to 
extreme  uniformity.  But  those  who  know  the  immense 
diversities  of  opinion  and  society  in  native  India;  those  who 
understand  that  it  is  the  mission  of  England  to  combine 
separate  units  into  a single  whole,  and  thereby  to  create  a 
nation  out  of  a congeries  of  peoples ; those  who  are  aware 
how  insignificant  is  the  number  of  Englishmen  who  have  to 
direct  this  immense  and  ever-increasing  body  of  operations, 
will  not  be  inclined  to  deplore  a rigor  and  uniformity  which 
lighten  the  labor  and  add  to  the  power  of  those  who  govern. 


CHAPTER  IV 


Fourth  Period,  i882-g8 


This  period  has  to  do  with  the  development  of  education 
during  the  last  two  decades.  It  is  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  Education  Commission  of  1882-3,  its  inquiries,  its  con- 
clusions, and  the  results  which  have  followed. 

The  chief  features  of  the  Despatch  of  1854  were  the  exten- 
sion of  elementary  education,  and  the  developmemt  of  a 
general  plan  of  education,  largely  by  means  of  the  Grant-in- 
Aid  System.  The  Government  was  represented  as  being 
“ desirous  of  extending  far  more  widely  the  means  of  acquir- 
ing general  European  knowledge  of  a less  high  order,  but 
of  such  a character  as  may  be  practically  useful  to  the  peo- 
ple of  India.”'  It  also  “looked  forward  to  the  time  when 
any  general  system  of  education  entirely  provided  by  Gov- 
ernment might  be  discontinued  with  the  gradual  advance  of 
the  system  of  grants-in-aid.”  ^ 

Attention  was,  therefore,  to  be  directed  to  providing  edu- 
cation for  the  mass  of  the  people,  “who  are  utterly  incapa- 
ble of  obtaining  any  education  worthy  of  the  name,  by  their 
own  unaided  efforts. ”3 

Principles  of  the  abovo  quotations  it  is  evident: 

Despatch  of  1854.  (y)  That  no  addition  to  the  number  of  Govern- 
ment Colleges  was  contemplated. 

(2)  That  Secondary  Education  was  to  be  left  chiefly  to 
the  system  of  Grants-in- Aid. 

(3)  That  attention  was  primarily  to  be  directed  to  the 
education  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 


10. 

247] 


=^§62. 


*§41. 


65 


66 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[248 

These  principles  were  confirmed  in  the  succeeding  Des- 
patches of  1859,  1863,  and  1871,  thus  removing  any  chance 
for  misapprehending  the  meaning  and  object  of  the  original 
Despatch.  But  notwithstanding  the  emphasis  placed  upon 
these  principles,  it  came  to  be  widely  felt,  at  the  beginning 
of  this  period,  that  they  had  not  been  adhered  to  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  education  in  the  different  provinces  by  the 
Departments  organized  under  the  Despatch  of  1854. 

Departure  from  expenditure,  ffom  public  funds, 

these  Principles,  qu  cducation  was  Rs.  750,000.  In  1881-2,  it 
had  increased  to  Rs.  16,000,000.  But  while  in  1854-5 
nearly  the  whole  sum  came  from  Imperial  Revenues,  in 
1881-2  about  one-fifth  was  from  Local  and  Municipal  Funds. 
The  increase  of  expenditure  contemplated  by  the  Despatch 
had,  therefore,  taken  place. 

But  what  of  its  application?  At  the  beginning  of  the 
previous  period,  there  were  14  Government  colleges,  while 
at  the  end  there  were  30  Government,  20  Aided,  and  9 
Unaided  colleges.  In  regard  to  the  expenditure  also,  it  was 
found  that  Government  higher  education,  in  1881-2,  was 
more  expensive  by  Rs.  500,000  than  was  the  whole  number  of 
colleges.  Secondary  and  Primary  schools  in  1854-5.  In  a 
total  expenditure  upon  education  of  Rs.  12,000,000,  it  was 
found  that  Rs.  700,000  was  being  diverted  from  Primary  and 
Middle  school  education  for  the  benefit  of  High  schools  and 
colleges. 

Thus  there  appeared  to  be  an  unwarrantable  violation  of 
the  principles  of  the  Despatch  of  1854  to  justify,  or  at  any 
rate,  to  account  for,  the  wide-spread  agitation  which  began 
in  1879. 

, A still  further  cause  for  discontent  was  found  in 

Decrease  of 

Attendance,  the  Comparatively  slow  increase  in  the  numbers  of 
those  under  instruction.  In  1870-1,  there  were  nearly 
1,900,000  children  in  all  the  schools;  in  1881-2,  the  number 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


249] 


67 


was  about  2,650,000,  thus  showing  a yearly  increase  of  about 
70,000.  The  number  of  children  of  school  age  underwent, 
during  this  decade,  an  average  annual  increase  of  over  200,- 
000.  Thus  British  education  was  shown  to  be  actually  fall- 
ing behind  at  the  rate  of  130,000  children  every  year. 

While  these  may  be  set  down  as  the  chief  causes  of  the 
movement  now  gathering  force,  there  were  not  wanting 
certain  minor  causes. 

Missionary  representatives  of  missionary  bodies, 

Representations,  interested  ill  education  in  India,  were  active  in 
the  agitation  from  its  commencement.  Their  splendid  ser- 
vices to  education  were  too  conspicuous  to  be  ignored,  or  to 
allow  their  complaints  to  go  unheeded.  They  complained 
of  unfair  treatment  to  themselves,  in  that  the  Government 
scholarships  were  not  tenable  in  their  schools,  but  only  in 
State  schools,  and  that  thus  the  best  scholars  were  attracted 
away.  They  were  compelled,  in  some  instances,  to  make 
use  of  books  of  which  they  entirely  disapproved.  Unwelcome 
regulations  as  to  fees,  salaries,  promotions,  were  pressed 
upon  them.  Their  grants  were  reduced  without  due  notice. 
The  Government  inspectors  were,  not  infrequently,  unfair  to 
them.  There  was,  naturally,  a strong  Departmental  feeling 
among  the  officials,  and  every  possible  means  was  used  to 
support  the  State  schools  against  rivalry.  Although  the 
Despatch  of  1854  provided  that  where  an  adequate  Aided 
school  existed,  no  State  school  should  be  introduced ; this 
regulation,  it  was  claimed,  had  been  repeatedly  violated." 
General  Council  Order,  among  Other  reasons,  to  give  strength 

on  Education  to  these  complaints,  there  was  formed,  in  1878, 
in  England,  the  General  Council  on  Education 
in  India,  chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  the  Rev.  James 
Johnston,  who  became  the  Secretary,  as  he  was  the  most 
active  member,  of  the  Council.  This  Council  brought  the 

' Answers  of  Missionaries  to  questions  by  the  General  Council  on  Education. 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


68 


[250 


movement  into  notice.  It  contained  such  names  as  the 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  Lord  Lawrence,  and  even  Sir  Charles 
Wood,  the  author  of  the  great  Despatch  of  1854.  Pledges 
were  secured  from  those  in  authority  that  an  inquiry  would 
be  instituted  as  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  principles  of  the 
Despatch. 

Defense  oi  Other  side  was  ranged  nearly  the  whole 

System,  body  of  the  officials  and  professors  connected  with 
the  Department,  along  with  a large  proportion  of  educated 
Hindus.  In  answer  to  the  complaints  made,  no  attempt 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  invalidate  the  facts  urged,  con- 
cerning the  actual  state  of  distribution  of  educational  efforts 
and  funds.  Indeed,  an  effort  was  made  to  show  that  the  Des- 
patch of  1854  did  not  forbid  a development  of  high  educa- 
tion carried  on  by  the  State. ^ But,  in  the  face  of  the  quota- 
tions cited,  this  could  not  stand.  The  argument  upon 
which  the  greatest  reliance  was  placed  was  known  as  the 
“ Filtering  down  theory,”  namely,  that  it  was  necessary,  first, 
to  create  a highly  educated  class,  by  which  means  general 
education  would  be,  in  the  end,  more  quickly  and  more 
surely  conveyed  to  the  masses. 

As  against  the  missionary  party,  it  was  asserted  that  they 
were  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole  agitation,  and  that,  being 
unable  to  sustain  competition  with  the  Department,  they  de- 
sired to  rid  themselves  of  their  rival,  and  thus  to  be  relieved 
of  the  necessity  of  making  the  strenuous  efforts  now  forced 
upon  them.  It  was  asserted  that  the  missionaries  desired  to 
get  the  whole  of  the  higher  education  in  their  hands,  after 
which  the  standards  would  be  lowered,  and  everything  taught 
would  be  with  religious  and  sectarian  bias. 

The  sufficient  answer  to  this  charge  lay  in  the  demand, 
not  that  the  State  colleges  should  be  abolished,  or  placed  in 
the  hands  of  missionaries,  but  that  they  should  be  transferred 


^ High  Schools  in  India,  Sir  Roper  Lethbridge. 


251]  rOR  Y AND  DE  VEL  0PM ENT 


69 


to  local  bodies,  consisting  mainly  of  Hindus,  the  men  who 
required  to  be  protected  from  the  missionaries. 

Appointment  of  Such  was  the  State  of  the  controversy  when, 
the  Commission,  on  the  3d  of  February,  1882,  the  Government 
of  India  appointed  an  Education  Commission,  with  a view  to 
inquiring  into  the  working  of  the  existing  system  of  Public 
Instruction,  and  to  the  further  extending  of  the  same  system, 
on  a popular  basis.  The  Commission  consisted  of  twenty- 
one  members,  under  the  Presidency  of  Sir  William  W.  Hun- 
ter, LL.D.,  C.  I.  E.,  a member  of  the  Viceroy’s  Legislative 
Council,  a high  authority  on  all  Indian  affairs,  and,  in  every 
way,  fitted  to  preside  over  this  important  inquiry.  Asso- 
ciated with  him  were  men  representative  of  the  official,  mis- 
sionary and  native  views,  and  also  of  the  different  races  and 
classes  interested  in  Education  in  India. 

In  the  instructions  accompanying  the  appoint- 
ment, the  Government  observed  that  “ owing  to  a 
variety  of  circumstances,  more  progress  has,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  been  made  in  high  and  middle  than  in  primary  ed- 
ucation. The  Government  of  India  is  not  disposed,  in  any 
way,  to  regret  this  advance.  But  the  Government  holds  that 
the  different  branches  of  public  instruction  should,  if  possible, 
move  forward  together,  and  with  more  equal  step  than 
hitherto,  and  the  principal  object,  therefore,  of  the  inquiry 
of  the  Commission  should  be,  ‘the  present  state  of  element- 
ary education  throughout  the  Empire,  and  the  means  by 
which  this  can,  everywhere,  be  extended  and  improved.’” 
The  Commission  was,  at  the  same  time,  instructed  to  in- 
quire into  the  possibility  of  a wider  extension  of  the  Grant- 
in-Aid  System,  in  connection  with  high  and  muddle  educa- 
tion. The  best  way  of  securing  the  aid  of  local  and  muni- 
cipal bodies,  in  the  management  of  public  schools,  was  also 
to  be  considered.  The  Commission  was  also  directed  to 
“ particularly  inquire  as  to  the  extent  to  which  indigenous 


70 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[252 


schools  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  are,  or  can 
be,  utilized  as  a part  of  the  educational  system.”  With  re- 
gard to  secondary  education,  the  Commission  was  directed 
to  inquire  “ into  the  quality  and  character  of  the  instruction 
imparted  in  schools  of  this  class.”  The  important  subject 
of  female  education  was  also  to  receive  special  attention,  and 
the  best  means  of  encouraging  and  extending  it  were  to  be 
considered. 


Proceedings  of  Such  was  the  widc  scope  of  the  inquiry  en- 
Commission.  trustcd  to  this  Commission.  It  met  at  Calcutta 
soon  after  appointment,  on  the  lOth  of  February,  1882,  and 
sat  regularly,  preparing  a scheme  of  operations  and  exam- 
ining the  local  witnesses.  For  the  following  eight  months, 
the  President,  Dr.  Flunter,  visited  the  different  provinces, 
collecting  material,  receiving  petitions,  and  examining  wit- 
nesses. A very  wide-spread  interest  was  aroused  on  the 
subject  of  education.  Large  m.eetings  were  held  to  welcome 
the  Commission  or  its  representatives.  Nearly  two  hundred 
memorials  were  presented,  about  half  of  them  coming  from 
educational  societies  and  municipal  and  other  public  bodies. 
When  the  Commission  assembled  again  in  Calcutta  on  the 
5th  of  December,  1882,  an  immense  mass  of  evidence  had 
been  collected.  Over  three  months  were  spent  in  digesting 
this  by  means  of  sub-committees,  and  in  arriving  at  no  less 
than  222  Resolutions,  180  of  which  were  carried  unani- 
mously. On  the  1 6th  of  March,  1883,  the  Commission  con- 
cluded its  collective  labors,  leaving  the  preparation  of  the 
report  to  a committee  of  five  members,  representing  the 
different  provinces,  and  the  President.  The  report  is  a folio 
volume  of  600  pages.  After  an  introductory  review  of  edu- 
cation in  India,  it  devotes  separate  chapters  to  the  special 
subjects  of  reference. 

Recommendations  of  These  subjects  Were  : Indigenous,  Primary, 
the  Commission.  Secondary,  and  Collegiate  education,  the  edu- 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


71 


253] 

cation  of  classes  requiring  special  treatment,  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Department,  and  educational  legislation.  The 
whole  concludes  with  a recapitulation  of  the  recommenda- 
tions made. 

We  are  here  not  so  much  concerned  with  a complete 
historical  record  as  with  a recognition  of  the  paramount  and 
characteristic  tendencies  and  achievements  of  each  period. 
Our  purposes  are,  therefore,  met  by  a brief  statement  of  the 
principal  recommendations  of  the  Commission. 

Indigenous  After  a brief  survey  of  indigenous  education  in 
Education.  India,  its  distinctive  features,  and  the  status  of  the 
teachers  in  such  schools,  it  is  recommended : “ That  all 
indigenous  schools,  whether  high  or  low,  be  recognized  and 
encouraged  if  they  serve  any  purpose  of  secular  education.” 
“ That  special  encouragement  be  afforded  to  indigenous 
schoolmasters  to  undergo  training.” 

“ That  a steady  and  gradual  improvement  be  arrived  at, 
with  as  little  immediate  interference  with  the  personnel  and 
curriculum  of  indigenous  schools  as  possible.” 

Primarv  Based  upon  the  policy  of  the  Despatch  of  1854,  it 
Education,  -y^as  natural  that  much  attention  should  have  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  primary  education.  The  Commission 
emphasized  the  point  that  elementary  instruction  was  to  be 
regarded  as  an  end  in  itself,  and  not  necessarily  as  a portion 
of  the  instruction  leading  up  to  higher  education ; and  it 
was  recommended : 

“ That,  while  every  branch  of  education  can  justly  claim 
the  fostering  care  of  the  state,  it  is  desirable,  in  the  present 
circumistances  of  the  country,  to  declare  the  elementary  edu- 
cation of  the  masses  to  be  that  part  of  the  educational  .system 
to  which  the  strenuous  efforts  of  the  state  should  now  be  di- 
rected in  a still  larger  measure  than  before.” 

A uniform  standard  of  examinations  was  laid  down  for 
Primary  schools,  the  standards  being  so  revised  as  to  include 


72 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[254 

more  practical  subjects,  as  native  arithmetic,  mensuration, 
and  elementary  physics.  The  method  of  assigning  aid  was 
to  be  that  of  payment  by  results,  the  funds  to  be  drawn 
from  local  revenues. 

Secondary  Secondary  education,  as  the  term  is  understood  in 
Education.  India,  was  described,  in  general  terms,  by  the  Com- 
mission as  “ that  which  leads  up  from  the  primary  to  the 
collegiate  course.”  It  was  pointed  out  that  while  the  higher 
limit  was  precisely  defined  by  the  matriculation  standard  of 
the  Universities,  the  starting  point,  in  secondary  education 
necessarily  varied  with  the  varying  limits  of  primary  instruc- 
tion, as  that  was  understood  in  the  different  provinces. 
With  regard  to  Secondary  schools,  it  was  distinctly  laid 
down : That  the  relation  of  the  State  to  secondary  is 

different  from  its  relation  to  primary  education,  in  that  the 
means  of  primary  education  may  be  provided  without  regard 
to  the  existence  of  local  cooperation,  while  it  is  ordinarily 
expedient  to  provide  the  means  of  secondary  education  only 
where  adequate  local  cooperation  is  forthcoming.”  It  was, 
therefore,  recommended  that  Secondary  schools  for  instruc- 
tion in  English  be  established  thereafter  by  the  State,  pre- 
ferably on  the  system  of  grants-in-aid.  The  certificate  of 
having  passed  the  final  examinations  in  these  schools  was  to 
be  accepted,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Commission,  as  a gen- 
eral test  of  fitness  for  the  public  service. 

Collegiate  Souie  of  the  important  subjects  dealt  with  in  this 
Education,  chapter  of  the  report  are  the  scope  and  character  of 
collegiate  instruction,  the  salaries  and  status  of  professors, 
etc.  The  question  of  Government  connection  with  the  colleges 
was  to  be  adjusted  by  dividing  them  into  three  classes:  (i) 
Those  from  which  it  would  be  premature  to  withdraw.  (2) 
Those  which  might,  with  advantage,  be  transferred  to  local 
native  bodies.  (3)  Those  which  might  be  transferred,  with- 
out condition,  to  local  bodies,  or  be  closed  altogether. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


255] 


73 


Among  the  recommendations  of  the  Commission  on  Col- 
legiate education  were  the  following: 

That  Indian  graduates  be  more  largely  employed  than  they 
have  hitherto  been  in  State  colleges. 

That  an  attempt  be  made  to  prepare  a moral  text-book, 
based  upon  the  fundamental  principles  of  natural  religion. 

That  the  principal,  or  a professor,  in  each  government  and 
aided  college  deliver  to  each  of  the  college  classes  a series 
of  lectures  on  the  duties  of  a man  and  a citizen. 

Educational  systcm  of  Local  Boards,  which  undoubtedly 

Legislation,  affected  the  conduct  and  character  of  education  in 
India  more  than  any  other  recommendation  of  the  Commis- 
sion, was  the  subject  of  very  considerable  discussion,  and, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  suggestions  were  those  which 
concerned  these  school  boards.  Local  Boards,  with  varying 
powers,  and  a varying  amount  of  control  over  primary  edu- 
cation, existed  in  all  the  provinces.  Their  duties  were, 
now,  to  be  more  clearly  defined  by  provincial  enactments. 
The  school  district  was  to  become  identical  with  any  munici- 
pal or  rural  unit  of  local  self-government.  All  schools  in 
the  district.  Department  and  Aided,  were  to  be  placed  under 
the  school  boards,  with  the  distinct  proviso,  however,  that  it 
should  be  open  to  the  Provincial  Government  to  exclude  any 
schools,  or  class  of  schools,  not  primary,  from  their  control, 
and  that  the  managers  should  not  have  their  existing  powers 
curtailed  except  by  authority  of  the  Provincial  Government. 
The  conduct  of  the  Boards  was  to  be  regulated  by  codes 
defining  their  relations  to  the  Department,  and  the  scope, 
function  and  rules  of  the  system  of  grants-in-aid.  Their 
funds  were  to  be  drawn  from  an  assignment  of  provincial 
revenues,  and  from  a fixed  proportion  of  local  and  municipal 
funds. 


Reception  of  the 
Report. 


Such  are  the  main  features  of  the  recommen- 
dations submitted  by  the  Education  Commis- 


74 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[256 

sion.  They  were  the  result  of  very  extensive  investigations, 
lengthy  discussions,  and  many  compromises  and  concessions. 
In  the  final  stage  they  were,  however,  passed  with  singular 
unanimity,  and  were  everywhere  favorably  received. 

Government  ^ resolution'  of  the  Imperial  Government  ap- 
Action.  proved  all  the  more  important  recommendations^ 
rejecting  the  suggestions  concerning  the  ‘ moral  text-book,’ 
and  the  college  lectures  on  ‘the  duties  of  a man  and  a citi- 
zen.’ After  the  report  had  been  adopted  the  question  re- 
mained as  to  what  reception  it  would  meet  from  Provincial 
Governments.  All  were  well-disposed,  as  it  proved.  Ben- 
gal declared  its  intention  of  increasing  its  annual  expenditure, 
in  regular  gradations,  through  a given  number  of  years. 
In  Madras  five  per  cent,  of  the  provincial  revenue  was  to  be 
permanently  assigned  to  education.  Similar  arrangements 
were  to  be  effected  in  other  provinces,  except  in  the  Punjab, 
where  the  Government  declared  its  inability  to  increase  its 
expenditure  on  education. 

By  1886-7  the  total  expendure  was  Rs.  25,500,000  as 
agains  Rs.  16,000,000  in  1881-2.  In  the  former  year,  Rs. 
8,600,000  came  from  Government,  and  Rs.  4,900,000  from 
local  sources,  while  in  the  latter,  Rs.  7,500,000  were  contrib- 
uted by  Government,  and  only  Rs.  3,200,000  by  local 
bodies.  In  the  decade  from  1878-1888  the  total  increase 
was  over  Rs.  10,000,000. 

The  progress  made  in  certain  important  particulars  ap- 
pears from  the  Tables  below.  While  the  general  character 
of  the  system  has  not  greatly  altered  since  1882,  there  have 
been  some  changes  in  proportions  and  distributions.  The 
greatest  of  the  administrative  changes — the  formation  of 
Local  Boards — is  destined  to  have  more  than  educational 
consequences. 

The  following  Tables  illustrate  the  progress  made  in  edu- 
^ October  25,  1884. 


HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


257] 


75 


cation  since  the  report  of  the  Education  Commission  in  the 
direction  of  attendance,  revenue  and  expenditure." 


Pupils. 


Primary  Schools. 

Secondary  Schools, 

Colleges, 

1881-2 

2,061,541 

214,164 

5,897 

1891-2 

2,837,607 

473,294 

16,277 

1896-7 

3,209,825 

535,155 

18,783 

Year. 

1881-2 

1891-2^ 

1896-7^ 

* Increase 


Pupils. 
Aided  Schools. 

1.352,853 

1,765,626 

2,019,800 

14  per  cent. 


Unaided  and 
Private  Schools, 

361,768 

969,241 

1,100,582 

14  per  cent,  = 14  per  cent. 


Revenues. 


Year. 

Prov.  Funds. 

Local  Funds. 

Munic.  Funds, 

Fees. 

Other  Sources. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

1881-2 

7,392,680 

2,952,567 

457,436 

4,392,664 

3,876,154 

1891-2I 

8,813,549 

5,394,808 

1,409,827 

8,854,750 

6,046,698 

1896-7^ 

9,522,985 

5,745,944 

1,496,721 

10,610,933 

7,868,317 

Increase 

8 p.  c. 

7 P-  c. 

6 p.  c. 

20  p.  c. 

30  p.  c.  = 15  p.  c. 

Expenditures, 


Year. 

Universities. 

Colleges, 

Second' y Educ. 

Pritn'y  Educ. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

1881-2 

177,740 

1,681,103 

4,380,000 

8,200,000 

1891-2^ 

473,142 

2,872,833 

9,895,691 

9,614,284 

1896-7^ 

670,895 

3,270,288 

11,452,219 

11,088,854 

^ Increase 

42  per  cent. 

14  perjcent. 

16  per  cent.  15  per  cent.  = 22  per  cent. 

^Second  and  third  Quinquennial  Reports  on  The  Progress  of  Education  in 
India,  1878-88  to  1891-92,  1892-93  to  1896-97. 


CHAPTER  V 


B.  Present  Conditio7i  of  Education  in  htdia 

We  confine  ourselves  in  this  section  to  a brief  resume  of 
the  present  condition  of  education  in  India,  bringing  our  re- 
view down  to  1897,  as  the  last  authoritative  statement  issu- 
ing from  the  Imperial  Government  was  contained  in  the 
Third  Quinquennial  Review  of  the  Progress  of  Education  in 
India,  covering  the  period  1892-3  to  1896-7,  the  official 
year  commencing  with  April  istd 
I.  The  Steps  leading  to  the  establishment  of  the  present 

system  of  education  in  India  have  been  four: 

a.  Lord  Macaulay’s  Minute  of  1835. 

Leading  to  a determination  of  the  issue  between 
European  learning  and  the  English  language, 
as  against  Oriental  learning  and  the  Classical 
languages  of  India. 

b.  The  Court  of  Directors’  Despatch  of  1854. 

Being  the  great  charter  of  education  in  India 
and  outlining  the  present  organization. 

c.  The  Universities  Acts  of  Incorporation  of  1857. 

Establishing  the  great  Indian  Universities  of 
Calcutta,  Madras  and  Bombay. 

d.  The  Education  Commission  of  1882. 

Reviewing  the  past,  and  confirming  that  which 

^ The  Reports  on  Public  Instruction  in  the  various  provinces  for  1897-8,  to- 
gether with  the  Resolution  of  the  Government  of  India  thereon,  have  recently 
appeared.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  abnormal  conditions  throughout  India 
during  the  year,  the  prevalence  of  famine  and  the  bubonic  plague,  there  was  a 
perceptible  decrease  in  most  of  the  returns  for  education  in  India  in  that  year. 
It  seems,  therefore,  best  to  draw  our  figures  from  the  last  Quinquennial  Review, 
1892-3  to  1896-7,  as  covering  a normal  period,  and  as  supplying  a better  basis 
for  our  comparisons  and  conclusions. 

76 


[258 


259] 


PRESENT  CONDITION 


77 


had  been  found  most  useful  in  experience  and 
most  needed  in  order  to  the  conferring  of  the 
benefits  of  education  upon  the  great  mass  of 
the  people. 


II.  Organization  : 

a.  Classification  of  Institutions/ 

I.  Public  Institutions. 

{a)  Government  Schools. 
(^)  Private-Aided  Schools. 


2.  Private  Institutions. 

Private  Unaided  Schools. 


Arts  Colleges. 


First  Grade. 
Second  Grade. 


University  Education.  < 


Professional 

Colleges. 


Law. 

Medicine. 


Engineering. 

Agriculture. 

^ Teaching. 


General. 


School 

Education. 


r Schools  of  Medicine. 


Engineering. 
“ Surveying. 

“ Agriculture. 


Special.  ^ 


Special.  ^ 


“ Commerce. 
“ Industries. 
“ Teaching. 


^ Madras  Educational  Riiles,  1891, 


78 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[260 


b.  Recognition  of  Institutions.^ 

Based  upon 

1.  Head  Master  and  Staff.  Their  qualifications, 

general  and  professional. 

2.  Accommodation  and  Sanitation. 

3.  Observance  of  Inter-School  Rules. 

4.  Maintenance  of  School  Registers. 

5.  Conformity  to  Rules  of  Discipline. 

c.  Grants-in-Aid."" 

1.  Salary  Grants — one-half,  one-third,  one-fourth, 

acccording  to  qualfications. 

2.  Results  Grants — per  capita,  according  to  exam- 

nation  results. 

3.  Scholarship  Grants — one-half. 

4.  Building  Grants — one-third. 

5.  Furniture  and  Library  Grant — one-half. 

6.  Endowment  Grants — one-half. 

III.  Ad^nmistration. 

a.  University  Education^ 

1.  Senate:  Chancellor,  Vice-Chancellor,  and  Fel- 

lows. 

2.  Syndicate:  Vice-Chancellor  and  eight  Fellows. 

3.  Faculties:  Arts,  Law,  Medicine,  Engineering. 

4.  Boards  of  Studies : Thirteen  branches  of  knowl- 

edge. 

5.  Examiners:  Twenty-six  subjects  of  examina- 

tion. 

6.  Registrar:  Executive  officer. 

Degrees:  B.  A.,  M.  A.,  B.  L.,  M.  L.,  L.  M.  S., 
B.  M.  and  M.  S.,  M.  D.,  C.  E.,  L.  T. 

Honorary:  LL.D. 

^ Madras  Educational  Rules,  1891. 

2 Madras  Grant-in-Aid  Code,  Revised  1897. 

’ Madras  University  Calendar,  1892. 


PRESENT  CONDITION 


79 


261] 


b.  School  Education! 

1.  Director  of  Public  Instruction — Province. 

2.  Inspector  and  Inspectress — Circles. 

3.  Assistant  Inspectors — Divisions. 

4.  Sub-Assistant  Inspectors — Districts. 

5.  Inspecting  School  Masters — Taluks. 


c.  Special  Education! 

I.  Schools  for  Teachers. 

Girls. 


Muhammadans. 

Panchammas,  or  non-caste  pupils. 
Aboriginal  Tribes. 

Native  Chiefs  and  Nobles. 
Industries  and  the  Arts. 

Oriental  Literature. 


IV.  Statistics! 

Population  of  India:"* 

Hindus 

Muhammadans 

Buddhists 

Christians 

Others 

Total 


207,000,000 

57,000,000 

7,000,000 

2,250,000 

13,500,000 

286,750,000 


Area  covered  by  Educational  Tables : 

Square  miles 1,074,268 

Population 232,490,022 

Period 1892-3  to  1896-7 

Estimated  population  of  school-going  age  =15  per  cent. 

Note — Except  where  otherwise  stated,  these  figures  are  for  1896-97, 
the  last  year  of  the  Quinquennial  Period. 

' Education  in  India,  Third  Quinquennial  Review,  1892-3  to  1896-7. 
’Census  of  India,  1891. 


8o 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[262 


a.  Number  and  Attendance. 

I.  Institutions  and  Pupils  in  all  India. 


Public  Institutions  . . . . 

109,886  Pupils  

.3,788,382 

Private  Institutions  . . . 

42,139  Pupils 

. 568,488 

Totals 

152,025 

4,356,870 

Increase  over  1891-2 

7 P-  c. 

13  p.  c. 

2.  Proportion  of  Institutions  to  Towns  and  Villages. 

For  Males.  For  F'emales. 

Total. 

25.08  1.39 

26.47 

Increase  over  1891-2 

2.24  0.25 

2.49 

Note  : Excluding  cities,  3 v 

illages  out  of  4 still  without  schools. 

3.  Proportion  of  Pupils  to  School-going  age  = 15 

per  cent. 

Males.  Females. 

Totals. 

Attendance 3,954>7i2  402,158 

4,356,87c. 

Percentage 22.3 

2-3 

12.5 

4.  Institutions  and  Pupils  according 

to  Class  of 

Institutions. 

Institutions. 

Pupils. 

Colleges 

18,783 

Secondary  Schools. . • . 

5»267 

535,155 

Primary  Schools 

3,209,825 

Special  Schools 

539 

24,619 

Private  Schools 

42,139 

568,488 

Totals  — 152,025 

4,356,870 

Increase  over  1891-2.. 

7 P-  c. 

13  p.  c. 

5.  Institutions  and  Pupils  according 

to  Manage- 

ment. 

Institutions.  Pupils. 

Proportion. 

State  

22,286  1,236,488 

28.4 

Aided 

63,955  2,019,800 

46.4 

Unaided 

23,645  532,094 

12.2 

Private 

42,139  568,488 

13.0 

Totals 

152,025  4,356,870 

lOC.O 

263] 


PRESENT  CONDITION 


8i 


6.  Pupils  according  to  Race  or  Creed: 


hi  crease 

In  total 

Percentage 

Pupils. 

over  i8gi-2. 

Population. 

of  Pupils. 

European  and  Eurasian. 

29,176 

13  p.  c. 

.09 

318 

Native  Christian 

114,695 

18  “ 

•55 

5.16 

Hindus 

2,935.597 

13  “ 

71.29 

72.86 

Muhammadans 

966,632 

13  “ 

21.81 

14.62 

Others 

310,770 

7 “ 

6.26 

4.18 

Totals 

4,356,870 

13  p.  c. 

lOO.CO 

ICO.OO 

7.  Pupils  according  to  Languages  learned: 


Per 

Classical 

Per 

Vernac- 

Per 

English. 

Cent.  Languages.  Cent. 

ulars. 

Cent. 

Public  Institutions . . 433,606 

1 1.4 

302,482 

7-9 

3,670,362 

97 

Private  Institutions  . 5,240 

268,727 

328,840 

Totals 438,846 

571,209 

3,999,202 

Note. — i in  79  of  school-going  age  learning  English. 


b.  Expenditure! 

I . Expenditure  on  Education  accordingto  Sources : 


Rs. 

Increase  over  ’ 

Provincial  Funds 

9,522,985 

8 p.  c. 

Local  Funds 

5 » 745 ,944 

7 “ 

Municipal  Funds 

1,496,721 

6 “ 

Fees 

10,610,933 

20  “ 

Other  Sources 

7,868,317 

30  “ 

Tot.als  

■ 35,244,900 

15  p.  c. 

2.  Expenditure  from  Public  and  Private  Funds 

Public  funds  

Rs.  16,917,552 

48  p.  c. 

Private  funds 

52  “ 

Totals  

Rs.  35,244,900 

100  p.  c. 

’ About  Rupees  three  to  one  Dollar. 


82 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[264 


3.  Expenditure  according  to  Institutions. 


Rs. 

Increase  over 

Universities 

42  p.  c. 

Colleges 

14  “ 

Secondary  Schools 

11,452,219 

16  “ 

Piimary  Schools 

15  “ 

Special  Schools 

U927.376 

13  “ 

Direction  and  Inspection.. 

••••  2,437»337 

8 « 

Scholarships 

• • • • 797.738 

10  “ 

Building  and  Furniture. . . . 

2,370,127 

9 “ 

Miscellaneous  

55  “ 

Totals 

. Rs.  35,244,900 

15  p.  c. 

4.  Average  Cost  of  each  Pupil,  according  to  Grade. 

Colleges — Arts Rs.  160.3  year. 

Colleges — Professional 196.4  “ “ 

Secondary  Schools 27.7  “ “ 

Primary  Schools 3.4  “ “ 

Training  Schools 131.1  “ “ 

Special  Schools 63.7  “ “ 

General  Average Rs.  96.1 

5.  Average  Cost  of  each  Pupil,  according  to  Man- 

agement. 


State  Schools 

Aided  Schools ... 

Unaided  Schools 

30  “ “ 

General  Average  

c.  Special  Educatton. 

I.  Training  Schools. 


Increase  over  'gi-2. 

For  Masters,  Schools 

22  p.  c. 

“ “ Pupils 

4 “ 

“ Mistresses,  Schools 

45 

22  “ 

“ “ Pupils 

41  “ 

265] 


PRESENT  CONDITION 


83 


2.  Technical  Schools. 


i8g6-7.  i8gi-2. 


Engineering,  Schools 

33 

28 

“ Pupils 

1,526 

Industrial,  Schools 

57 

69 

“ Pupils 

3,101 

3,860 

Art,  Schools 

6 

6 

Art,  Pupils  

1*398 

1,048 

3.  Girls’  Schools. 

Public  Institutions 

360,006 

Private  “ 

45.152 

Total 

402,158 

Percentage  of  school  age . . 

2.34 

According  to  Race  or  Religion,  and  Stage  of  Instruction. 

Hindus. 

Muham- 

madans. 

Native 

Christians. 

Secondary,  English 

5-6 

.1 

27.8 

“ Vernacular 

63.6 

4.1 

29.1 

Primary  

21.8 

.6 

— 

— 

— 

Average  

47- 

8.7 

19.3 

In  total  population 

71-3 

21.8 

.6 

4.  Oriental  Education. 

Colleges 5 

Pupils. 

487 

Schools,  Sanskrit 

29,060 

“ Arabic  or  Persian  .... 

2,647 

35.578 

“ Other  Oriental  Classics 

49 

744 

Totals 

5.1*5 

65,869 

d.  Examinations  : 

I.  University.  Quinquennium, 

, 1892-3 

to  1896-7. 

Examinaiion.  Candidates. 

Passed. 

Per 

Cent. 

1887-8  to 
i8gi-2. 

First  Arts 31*287 

12,425 

39-7 

34-2 

B.  A.,  etc 14,213 

6,223 

43-8 

43.5 

M.  A.,  etc 1,239 

569 

45-9 

45-0 

Law 5,624 

2,241 

39-8 

46.7 

Medicine  ......  3,655 

1.755 

48.0 

46.4 

Engineering  ...  2,712 

1,502 

55-4 

47.0 

84 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 

2.  Matriculation. 


[266 


Quinquennium,  1893-97. . Candidates,  76,689  Passed,  30,979  40.4 

Year,  1896-97 “ I7i952  “ 7,916  43.8 


3.  Primary. 

Year,  1896-97 


Candidates,  395,158  Passed,  243,820  62.0 


CHAPTER  VI 


C.  A Discussion  of  Some  of  the  More  Important  Problems 
Connected  with  Educatio7i  in  India. 

The  story  which  we  have  attempted,  in  the  preceding 
pages,  briefly  to  record,  of  the  development  of  the  modern 
British  system  of  education  by  superimposing  it  upon  the 
ancient,  indigenous  system,  so  long-lived  and  so  wide-spread 
^ ^ in  India,  gives  rise  to  many  interesting  inquiries. 

Indian  To  those  who  are  within,  and  who  are  personally 
Administration,  concemed  with  the  introducing  of  the  new  and 
with  the  conserving  of  that  which  is  useful  of  the  old, 
serious  questions  have  been  presented,  as  numerous  as  they 
are  perplexing.  For  these  men,  and  for  the  splendid  cour- 
age and  fine  spirit  they  have  shown  in  meeting  their  heavy 
responsibilities,  and  in  carrying  forward  so  successfully  their 
stupendous  task  of  putting  new  wine  into  old  bottles  without 
doing  too  great  violence  to  either,  the  writer,  after  a per- 
sonal experience  with  them,  and  a knowledge  of  their 
achievements,  extending  over  a number  of  years,  has  only 
the  profoundest  respect  and  the  greatest  admiration. 

From  the  standpoint,  however,  of  the  educa- 

Problemsof  ^ . 

National  tional  historian,  who  is  studying  from  without  this 
Development,  experiment,  whereby  the  newest  European 

methods  are  being  applied  to  the  reorganization  of  a long 
stationary  Asiatic  society,  and  who  is  looking  for  the  lessons 
that  may  be  useful  in  the  development  of  his  own  expanding 
national  life,  there  are  still  larger  problems  of  vital  signifi- 
cance in  their  application  to  new  and  widening  responsi- 
bilities. 

2671 


85 


86  EDUCATION  IN  INDIA  [^268 

To  these  larger  problems  we  will  confine  ourselves  in  this 
concluding  chapter. 

Current  most  important  and  authoritative  con- 

Discussions.  tHbutions  that  have  been  made  to  current  discus- 
sions upon  these  educational  problems  in  India,  are  the  recent 
editorial  utterances  of  the  London  Spectator y under  the  title, 
“Three  Rotten  Cultures,”'  and  the  Chancellor’s  address,  de- 
livered at  the  recent  Allahabad  University  Convocation,  in 
March,  iSpp.’*  The  former  is  a very  severe  criticism  of  the 
results  of  British  education  upon  the  development  of  culture 
in  India,  while  the  latter  is  an  admirable  summing  up  of  the 
present  educational  situation  in  India,  presenting  with  dis- 
crimination the  advantages  that  have  accrued  to  that  coun- 
try from  the  introduction  of  that  system,  without  attempting 
to  minimize  the  defects  that  experience  has  discovered  in  it. 

In  order  to  a thorough  understanding  of  the  merits  and 
demerits  of  the  present  educational  system  in  India,  and  of 
its  points  of  defence  and  attack,  we  shall  make  liberal  use  of 
these  two  statements. 

" Three  Rotten  The  editor  of  File  SpBctutor  his  “Three 

Cultures.”  Rotteii  Cultures”  to  be,  the  Culture  of  Rome,  as 
it  existed  during  its  period  of  decadence,  when  the  barbari- 
ans were  breaking  up  the  empire,  which  culture  he  calls  the 
education  of  Roman  Nobles;  the  Culture  of  the  Chinese 
Literatiy  the  feeding  upon  a few  classics  and  nothing  else, 
which  he  characterizes  as  the  education  of  the  Chinese  Man- 
darins ; and  then  he  proceeds  to  a description  of  the  third,  as 
follows : 

“ For  the  other  culture,  of  nearly  the  same  kind,  we  are 
ourselves  responsible.  It  is  that  of  the  graduates  of  Bom- 
bay and  Bengal.  We  are  taking,  yearly,  thousands  of  Mah- 
rattas  and  Bengalees,  who  are,  naturally,  among  the  most 


^ The  Spectator y March  i8,  1S99. 

* The  Educational  Review  of  India  y April,  1899. 


87 


269]  OBLEMS  OF  NA  TIOXAL  DE  VEL 0PM EN T 

intelligent  of  mankind,  and  are  setting  them  to  learn  the 
masterpieces  of  English  literature.  In  a way  they  do  learn 
them,  as  the  Roman  nobles  learned  their  classics ; that  is, 
they  learn  their  words  without  imbibing  one  particle  of  their 
spirit.  They  devote  the  whole  power  of  most  acute  minds 
to  acquiring  just  so  much  knowledge  of  English  ideas  as  will 
enable  them  to  pass  for  a degree.  The  degree  once  ob- 
tained, they  are,  they  think,  cultivated  men,  and  put  forward 
their  claim  to  all  official  posts,  as  did  also  the  Roman  no- 
bles, and  are  proud,  as  they  were,  of  the  distance  between 
themselves  and  the  uninstructed  vulgar.  Like  them  they 
are  indifferent  to  science  and  the  constructive  arts ; like 
them,  they  seem  to  have,  in  politics,  no  sort  of  efficiency; 
like  them,  they  are  disposed  to  tolerate  corruption,  if  only 
the  corrupt  have  both  culture  and  what  they  consider  man- 
ners . . . 

“We  do  not  think,  as  so  many  do,  that  they  will  become 
formidable  to  our  rule;  but  we  do  think  that,  in  educating 
them  on  so  false  a system,  we  have  made  the  second  great 
blunder  of  our  rule — the  first  is  closing  too  many  careers — 
and  have  diffused,  instead  of  the  light,  a mere  imitation  of 
it.  We  have,  too,  made  a very  respectable  class  permanently 
unhappy.  The  graduates  are  unfitted  for  any  careers  except 
in  Government  offices,  and  for  every  three  of  these  there  is, 
now,  but  one  appointment.  By  and  by  there  will  be  a ter- 
rible amount  of  latent,  thoughtful  disaffection.  Whether 
there  is  any  remedy,  we  are  not  certain.  To  abandon,  at 
once,  an  experiment  so  vast  as  the  secular  education  of  a 
continent,  while  its  subjects  warmly  approve  it,  is  a daring 
undertaking,  from  which  even  a Government  like  that  of 
India  may  reasonably  shrink.  But  of  this  we  do  feel  certain, 
that  education  in  India,  as  hitherto  pursued,  is  of  no  more 
value  than  the  education  of  nobles  in  the  late  Roman  period, 
or  of  Chinese  mandarins  now,  and,  like  theirs,  will  ultimately 
fall,  probably  with  a crash.” 


88 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[270 


The  Allahabad 
University 
Convocation 
Address,  1899. 


In  the  Allahabad  University  Convocation  Ad- 
dress, the  Chancellor,  Sir  Antony  MacDonnell, 
reminds  us  that  not  until  the  results  of  discus- 
sions and  experiments  were  summed  up  in  Sir 
Charles  Wood’s  great  educational  Despatch  of  1854,  was  the 
true  path  of  progress  marked  out,  and  that  since  then  there 
has  been  steady  progress  along  that  path.  Even  the  storm 
of  the  mutiny,  which  followed  so  soon  after,  and  which,  for 
a time,  overthrew  all  order,  was  powerless  to  stem  the  rising 
tide  of  educational  development  along  the  line  of  a high 
ideal,  that  of  “ conferring  upon  the  natives  of  India  those 
vast  moral  and  material  blessings  which  flow  from  the  gen- 
eral diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  and  which  India  may, 
under  Providence,  derive  from  her  connection  with  England.” 
As  the  Chancellor  claimed,  there  is  nothing  more  honorable 
to  the  race,  or  more  becoming  to  the  cause  of  education, 
than  the  fact  that,  while  the  storm  of  fanaticism  and  ignor- 
ance was  at  its  height,  the  administrators  of  India  set  them- 
selves, with  calmness  and  deliberation,  to  pursue  the  policy 
of  establishing  Universities,  and  an  Educational  System,  thus 
creating  that  knowledge  which,  alone,  can  exorcise  the  spirit 
of  fanaticism  from  which  India  was  suffering. 

^ ^ In  regard  to  the  gains  which  can  be  placed 

Gams  to  the  Credit  r 

of  the  Educational  to  the  Credit  of  the  educational  department  of 
Department.  provinccs,  the  Cliancellor  stated  that  they 

were  of  two  kinds:  “Gains  to  the  public  and  to  the  pro- 
moters of  commercial  and  industrial  enterprise  in  the 
country,  by  the  provision  of  trustworthy  and  efficient  public 
officers,  agents,  and  servants  of  all  classes ; and  gains  to  the 
public,  generally,  in  the  establishment  of  better  intellectual, 
social,  and  moral  standards.”  He  claimed  with  the  added 
authority  of  one  who  had  had  administrative  experience,  as 
Lieut. -Governor  of  the  North  West  Provinces,  that  a vast  im- 
provement had  been  effected  in  the  purity  and  efficiency  of 


2/1] 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


89 


the  administration,  by  the  introduction  into  it  of  the  men 
turned  out  by  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the  country.  He 
^ . . then  quotes  the  opinion  of  the  Education 

iLducation  Commission  ^ ^ 

on  the  Improve-  Commissiou,  that  “ throughout  the  country 

ments  of  Graduates.  . , 

Civil  omcers  have  begun  to  discover  and 
readily  to  acknowledge  that  in  integrity,  capacity  for  work, 
intelligence  and  industry,  the  subordinate  trained  in  college 
excels  his  fellows  brought  in  in  accordance  with  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  past.  At  the  Bar  the  students  of  our  colleges 
acquit  themselves  with  distinguished  success,  and  their  in- 
fluence has  been  generally  of  a healthy  kind.  When  com- 
mand of  capital  opens  to  them  a commercial  career,  the 
general  testimony  is  of  the  same  purport  as  that  borne  to 
the  credit  with  which  they  fill  other  positions  in  life.”  Sir 
Antony  MacDonnell  adds  with  emphasis : “ That  was  the 
opinion  of  the  Education  Commission  fifteen  years  ago;  in 
my  judgment,  and  I speak  from  experience  of  administrative 
control  in  four  out  of  the  eight  great  provinces  of  the 
Empire,  it  is  truer  now  tha^i  it  was  then.  This  improvement 
of  the  moral  standard  in  the  public  service  and  in  pro- 
fessional and  commercial  life,  manifests  itself  in  many  ways. 
Of  all  these  ways,  perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  hopeful 
lies  in  the  better  conception  of  duty  and  responsibility  which 
is  spreading,  in  the  attentive  and  reverent  respect  now  being 
paid  to  the  purer  ethics  of  the  earlier  creeds,  and  in  the 
efforts  being  made  to  purify  caste  customs  and  rites  of  their 
extravagances.  These  are  great  gains ; they  are  pro- 
gressive and  cumulative,  and  they  should  not  be  forgotten 
by  any  one  who  undertakes  to  weigh  our  educational  en- 
deavors in  the  balance.” 

All  impartial  students  of  education  in  India  must  admit 
that  this  calm  and  deliberate  testimony  from  those  who 
have  made  careful  inquiries  and  have  had  long  experience, 
goes  far  to  refute  the  charge  of  The  Spectator,  that  the  edu- 


go  EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA  [^272 

cational  system  in  India  “ does  not  alter  the  character  or  en- 
large the  abilities.” 

The  Testimony  This,  then,  is  the  testimony  of  painstaking  in- 
of  Facts.  vestigation  and  of  large  experience,  in  contraven- 
tion of  the  parallelism  drawn  between  the  English-speaking 
graduate  and  the  Roman  noble  of  the  period  of  decadence, 
and  the  Chinese  literatiy  or  mandarins,  of  the  present.  But 
what  is  the  testimony  of  facts? 

Principal  Miller  This  has  been  supplied  for  us  in  a calm,  dis- 
of Madras.  passionatc,  and  convincing  statement,  called 
forth  by  the  criticism  of  The  Spectator y from  Principal  Wil- 
liam Miller,  for  many  years  a leading  member  of  the  Senate 
of  the  Madras  University,  a potent  voice  in  the  Education 
Commission  of  1882,  and,  for  over  three  decades,  a deter- 
mining influence  in  every  department  of  educational  activity 
in  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  if  not  in  the  whole  of  India. 
No  individual,  not  excepting  Government  officials,  has  had  a 
greater  power  in  the  moulding  and  directing  of  education  in 
India  in  recent  times.  Viceroys  have  made  willing  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  indebtedness  of  the  Government  of  India  to 
this  veteran  missionary  educationist,  and  among  the  letters 
called  forth  by  The  Spectator  s article  was  one  from  a former 
Governor  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  who  based  his  reply 
largely  upon  the  character  and  achievements  of  Dr.  Miller.* 
A worthy  successor  of  Dr.  Duff,  of  Calcutta,  and  Dr.  Wilson, 
of  Bombay,  Dr.  Miller  has  long  been  Principal  of  the  Madras 
Christian  College,  the  most  popular  and  successful,  if  not 
also  the  best  equipped  collegiate  institution  in  all  India.  The 
testimony  of  such  a witness,  and  drawn  from  such  a source, 
must  be  well-nigh  conclusive. 

In  his  reply  to  The  Spectator,^  Dr.  Miller  gives  an  analysis 
of  the  careers  followed  by  the  880  graduates  of  the  Madras 
Christian  College,  admitted  to  be  an  important  and  repre- 
sentative institution,  between  the  years  1869  and  1894. 

2 May  20,  1899. 


^ The  Spectator y May  27,  1899. 


91 


273] 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


“ Of  the  880,  those  in  the  employment  of  the 
portion  of  GrTdua'L  British  Govemment  number  390.  Meanwhile, 
in  Government  ^nowii  to  be  followin^  Careers  outside 

Service.  _ 

of  the  service  of  the  Government.  Of  those  in 
independent  employment,  160  are  making  their  way  in  the 
world  as  lawyers.  More  than  100  are  principals,  professors, 
tutors,  or  teachers  in  non-Government  colleges  or  schools. 
About  80  are  employed  in  different  capacities  by  local  bod- 
ies and  native  noblemen.  Some,  though  far  too  few,  are 
traders  or  contractors  on  their  own  account.  A few  attend 
to  the  cultivation  of  their  own  lands.  Some  are  engineers, 
medical  practitioners,  editors  of  newspapers,  or  are  employed 
by  banks  and  railways.  Again,  of  the  880  graduates,  30  ate 
Christians,  of  whom  a third  are  in  the  service  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  two-thirds  are  otherwise  employed. 

“ Of  the  390  who  are  employed  by  Government,  it  is 
true  that  the  large  number  of  180  are  clerks  or  accountants 
in  government  offices.  These  are,  chiefly,  the  younger  men. 
But  government  service  affords  many  different  careers. 
Thus  less  than  half  of  those  employed  by  the  State,  and 
much  less  than  a quarter  of  the  whole  number  of  our  grad- 
uates, are  in  ‘ Government  offices.’  Scores  of  those  in  State 
employment  are  magistrates,  revenue  officers,  and  registrars. 
Many  are  professors,  or  lecturers  in  Government  colleges. 
Government  service  may  mean  much  besides  clerical  work 
in  an  office.  Does  it  not  seem  as  if  there  were  nearly  as 
much  variety  of  career  among  our  graduates  as  among  edu- 
cated men  at  home?” 

Position  of  goes  on  to  assert  that  among  the 

Indian  thousand  graduates  of  his  own  college  and  the 
■ hundreds  of  graduates  from  other  colleges,  he  has 
found  but  little  of  that  discontent  with  everything  except  an 
official  career.  On  the  contrary,  he  claims  to  have  found 
among  them  a growing  amount  of  healthy  readiness  to  set 


92 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[274 

their  hands  to  any  useful  work.  Whether  the  India  gradu- 
ates are  “ unfitted  ” for  the  careers  on  which  they  enter  is  a 
large  question.  Doubtless  they  might  be  better  fitted  than 
they  are.  Still,  it  is  believed  on  all  sides  that  the  standard 
of  honesty  and  efficiency  in  the  public  service  and  in  all 
kinds  of  work  in  which  educated  men  engage  in  India,  has 
risen  greatly.  Testimony  to  this  effect  has  frequently  been 
borne  by  those  best  qualified  to  judge,  as  we  have  already 
seen.  “ It  will  be  universally  admitted,”  says  Dr.  Miller, 
“ that  in  India  men  of  some  culture  show  a greater  prefer- 
ence than  is  healthy  for  employment  under  Government. 
Other  defects  may  easily  be  detected  in  Indian  graduates. 
There  are  defects,  too,  in  those  who  instruct  them  and  in  the 
system  under  which  they  work.  But  even  in  Britain  and 
elsewhere,  graduates,  and  their  instructors  and  the  systems 
of  education,  come  far  short  of  perfection.” 

Dr.  Miller  does  not  deny  that  there  are  many  defects  in 
Indian  education.  “ Still,  it  seems  to  me,”  says  he,  in  his 
letter  to  The  Spectator,  “ that  these  well-ascertained  facts 
point  to  somewhat  different  conclusions  from  those  at  which 
you  arrive  in  your  article  on  ‘ Three  Rotten  Cultures.’  ” 

This  position  of  Dr.  Miller,  and  of  many  others  agreeing 
with  him,  received  high  official  confirmation  in  the  Convoca- 
tion Address  of  Madras  University  in  1895,  when  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Madras,  as  Chancellor,  expressed  himself  on  the 
important  subject  of  the  employment  of  Indian  graduates, 
as  follows : ' 

“ Year  by  year  a large  number  of  young  men  pass  out 
through  the  University  to  take  their  places  among  the  gen- 
eral body  of  citizens,  equipped  with  an  amount  of  learning 
far  beyond  that  which  their  forefathers  enjoyed.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  number  of  highly  educated  youths  is  far 
ahead  of  the  requirements  of  the  country,  and  that  the  result 
^ Report  on  Public  Instruction  in  the  Madras  Presidency  for  1896-7,  p.  55. 


275  J 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


93 


of  the  present  policy  is  to  produce  a body  of  dissatisfied  per- 
sons, unable  to  find  a suitable  opening  in  life,  and  that  higher 
education  is  advancing  faster  than  is  compatible  with  the 
general  progress  of  the  people. 

“ It  is  interesting,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  to  note 
that  there  are  at  the  disposal  of  Government  (Madras) 
6,500  posts,  carrying  a monthly  salary  of  Rs.  30  and  up- 
wards, and  the  annual  number  of  vacancies  amongst  these 
posts  is,  approximately,  290.  The  yearly  average  number 
of  graduates  in  Arts  is  236,  calculated  on  the  figures  of  the 
last  ten  years.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  suitable  em- 
ployment is  available  in  the  Government  service  for  a very 
large  number  of  graduates,  if  not  for  all,  and  the  figures  go 
very  far  towards  disproving  the  idea  that  the  yearly  out- 
turn of  graduates  is  in  excess  of  the  demand.  As  a matter 
of  fact,  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of 
graduates  whose  names  appear  on  the  books  of  the  Uni- 
versity, have  obtained  appointments  under  Government, 
although,  in  almost  all  offices,  preference  is  given  to  appli- 
cants who  have  graduated,  and  for  some  posts  a University 
degree  is  held  to  be  a necessary  qualification.” 
p,.s.n,Sys«moi  A Writer  in  a representative  Indian  maga- 
Education  Immature.  2ine  * has  pertinently  reminded  us  of  the  fact 
that  the  culture  of  English-speaking  Hindus,  such  as  it  is,  is 
culture  in  its  adolescence.  Its  faults  are  obvious  and  irrita- 
ting, but  they  are  faults  inevitable  to  that  stage.  Fifty  years 
is  a very  short  time  in  the  history  of  a nation,  and  it  is  less 
than  fifty  years  since  this  movement  in  the  direction  of  West- 
ern learning  fairly  got  under  weigh.  This  is  hardly  a long 
enough  time  in  which  to  convert  large  numbers  to  a new- 
culture,  and  exhibit  in  them  its  ripe  and  lovely  fruits.  If, 
hitherto.  Western  culture  has  produced  some  smatterers  in 
India  rather  than  all  scholars,  and  mere  officials  rather  than 


The  Harvest  Fields  May,  1899. 


94 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[276 

men,  the  fault  is  not  in  the  system  only,  but  even  more  in 
the  fact  that  it  is  young,  and  that  it  has  important  influences 
working  counter  to  it.  The  fault  of  the  culture  of  New 
India  is  not  rottenness,  but  immaturity.  “ It  is  hard,  sour, 
and  sometimes  repellent  fruit,  perhaps,  but  it  has  this 
supreme  advantage  over  rotten  fruit,  that  there  is  hope  in  it.” 
True  Parallel  to  parallelism  witli  the  Roman  Noble  and 

Roman  Noble  and  Chinese  Mandarin  may  be  more  truly  found  in 
Chinese  Literati,  Brahmans  of  India  whose  culture  is  that 

only  of  the  Sanskrit  aYid  the  Vernaculars.  That  is  culture  in 
its  decadence.  It  has  no  eyes  for  history,  and  science  makes 
no  appeal  to  it.  It  has  ceased  to  be  progressive  and  assimi- 
lative. It  makes  no  attempt  to  adapt  itself  to  present-day 
movements.  It  abates  not  one  jot  of  its  old  haughty  claims, 
even  though  changed  conditions  have  robbed  it  of  its  power 
to  enforce  them.  It  has  ceased  to  alter  character,  or  to  en- 
large ability,  or  to  provoke  originality.  It  survives  in  dignity, 
but  with  diminishing  influence,  for  it  commands  none  of  the 
forces  which  the  new  times  require.  That  is  the  true  parallel 
to  the  vanished  culture  of  Rome,  and  the  vanishing  culture 
of  China. 

European  and  This  brings  US  to  the  question  of  European 
Oriental  Learning,  knowledge  and  of  the  English  language  as  the 
material  and  medium  of  instruction.  We  have  outlived  the 
arguments  of  the  Anglicists  and  the  Orientalists  in  the  dis- 
cussion that  so  largely  characterized  the  second  period  of 
British  Education  in  India.  In  more  recent  years  this  dis- 
cussion seems  to  have  revived  ; and  the  wisdom  of  attaching 
so  much  importance  to  the  study  of  English  literature,  and 
so  little  to  Oriental  classical  and  vernacular  literature,  has 
again  been  called  in  question.  It  has  been  felt  by  some  that 
Macaulay’s  influence  made  the  pendulum  swing  too  far  in 
the  direction  of  English  learning,  and  that  it  would  have 
been  better  if  the  study  of  Sanskrit  and  Arabic  literature  had 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


95 


277] 

been  allowed  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  study  of  the  liter- 
ature of  the  West.  In  this  way  the  breach  between  the  past 
and  the  present  might  have  been  less  perceptible,  and  the 
new  knowledge  might  have  had  less  unsettling  effects.  But 
however  that  may  be,  however  necessary  it  may  be  to  be- 
stow greater  attention  in  the  future  on  the  classical  languages 
of  India,  there  is  now  no  forsaking  of  the  past  possible,  so  far 
as  Western  learning  is  concerned.  Distinct  and  well-sus- 
tained efforts  have  been  made  to  restore  Oriental  learning  to 
a higher  place  in  India,  but  in  vain.  The  Punjab  University 
has  been  largely  concerned  with  this  effort.  But  the  Orien- 
tal Faculty  attached  to  that  University  continues  to  be  a 
failure,  and  is  only  saved  from  utter  collapse  by  an  extrava- 
gant system  of  scholarships.  No  less  than  two-thirds  of 
those  who  can  be  induced  to  attend  this  Oriental  College, 
receive  scholarships  and  stipends.  In  1898  the  expenditure 
on  this  college  amounted  to  Rs.  31,336,  of  which  only  Rs. 
263  stood  for  the  fees  collected  within  this  same  period. 
During  the  ten  years  1887-97  the  total  number  of  Oriental 
degrees  was  only  35.  These  facts  justify  the  remark  of  the 
Chancellor  of  that  University  that  “ it  would  not  be  surpris- 
ing if  the  general  classes  of  the  Oriental  College  were,  in  the 
course  of  a few  years,  to  die  of  pure  atrophy." 

Separate  Oriental  Warned  by  this  example,  it  has  been  recently 

Faculties  in  the  announccd"  that  the  committee  appointed  by 
University.  Senate  of  the  Madras  University  to  con- 

sider and  report  upon  the  proposal  made  by  the  Honourable 
D.  Duncan,  Director  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Madras 
Presidency,  to  institute  an  Oriental  side  to  the  University, 
has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  time  has  not  arrived  for 
the  creation  of  a separate  Oriental  Faculty.  It  is  also  an- 
nounced that  that  the  Educational  Department  will  now 
bring  forward  a scheme  for  the  encouragement  of  Oriental 

^ The  Educational  Review  of  India,  June,  1899. 


96 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[278 

studies  and  literature,  by  the  institution  of  public  tests  in  the 
principal  classical  and  vernacular  languages  of  the  Presi- 
dency. The  objects  to  be  gained  by  this  proposal  are  said 
to  be : (I)  The  supply  of  competent  persons  for  employ- 
ment as  teachers  of  Oriental  languages  in  schools  and  col- 
leges; and  (2)  the  production  of  works,  in  the  vernacular 
languages,  especially  adapted  to  bring  within  the  reach  of 
the  masses  of  the  population,  useful  knowledge,  and  to  the 
development  of  the  material  resources  of  the  country. 

The  Employment  ^6  ai'c  HOW  Oil  the  threshold  of  3 large  and 
of  English.  practical  question,  the  determination  of  the 
position  w’hich  the  English  language  should  hold  in  India. 
Shall  it  take  the  place  of  the  classical  or  the  vernacular  lan- 
guages of  the  country?  Dr.  Miller  holds  that  what  has  been 
done  for  Europe  by  training  in  the  classical  tongues  is  to  be 
done  for  India  by  training  in  the  English  language,  which, 
whether  for  better  or  worse,  is  practically  the  classical  tongue 
of  the  Indian  Universities,  and  of  education  in  that  land.’' 

In  1835-6,  of  3,573  scholars  in  government  schools,  I,8i8 
were  studying  English.  Fifty  years  later,  English  was 
taught,  in  Colleges,  to  over  6,000,  in  High  schools  to  60,000, 
and  in  middle  schools  to  75,000  students,  while  even  in 
Primary  schools  it  was  studied  by  over  60,000  children. 
Thus  English  was  being  studied  by  200,000  students.  In 
the  year  1896-7,  this  number  had  been  more  than  doubled, 
433,606  students  being  now  engaged  in  learning  English  in 
Public  institutions. 

In  High  schools  and  Colleges,  English  is  not  only  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  also  the  medium  of  instruction.  Some  of  the  most 
important  newspapers  which  are  circulated  only  for  native 
readers,  are  printed  by  preference  in  English,  and  of  the 
total  number  of  books  published  each  year,  about  one  in  ten 
is  written  in  English.  The  language  of  national  assemblies 

Ibid,,  March,  1899. 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


97 


279] 

in  India  is  English,  as  the  one  common  to  the  greatest  num- 
ber. Where  is  this  increase  to  stop?  Will  it  continue  until 
English  has  supplanted  all  of  the  150  troublesome  vernacu- 
lars? We  have  mentioned  the  fact  that  Mr.  Hodgson,  the 
En<^iish  and  Orientalist,  championed  the  native  dia- 

the  Indian  lects,  and  that  Mr.  Adam,  whose  reports  upon  in- 

Vernaculars.  i • i i r i 

digenous  education  have  been  referred  to,  ex- 
pressed his  deep  conviction  of  the  impossibility  of  English 
ever  becoming  a general  medium  of  instruction.  To  Mr.  R. 
T.  Thornton,  however,  belongs  the  distinction  of  having  first 
advocated  the  extinction  of  the  native  languages.  He  argued 
from  a parallelism  between  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
British  dominion  in  India.  The  Romans  encouraged  the 
study  of  Latin  in  Gaul,  Spain  and  Africa.  They  did  not 
promote  a Gallic,  Iberian  or  Moorish  literature  in  their  con- 
quered provinces.  Why,  then,  he  asks,  should  the  English 
encourage  the  native  languages  of  India?  In  reply,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  point  out  that  the  analogy  of  the  two  cases  fails 
in  the  fact  that  the  Gauls  and  Spaniards  and  Moors  were  not 
characteristically  literary  nations.  Nor  did  they  possess  a 
copious  literature.  Nor  had  they  for  2500  years  possessed 
a scientific  theory  of  grammar,  and  a clear  analysis  of  the 
forms  and  structure  of  their  languages.  Had  Mr.  Thornton 
The  Analogy  of  earned  his  analogy  a little  further,  and  endeav- 
Greece  and  India,  ored  to  apply  it  to  the  oue  subject  people  of 
Rome  most  nearly  akin  to  the  Hindus  in  intellectual  subtlety 
and  moral  depth,  the  Greeks,  he  would  have  seen  its  utter 
failure.  The  Greeks  never  gave  up  for  Latin  the  language 
which  embodied  all  that  remained  to  solace  them  in  their 
degradation,  the  memory  of  the  ancient  glories  of  their  race, 
and  the  creations  of  their  genius.  What  was  true  of  the  past 
is  also  true  of  more  modern  Grecian  history.  Only  a cen- 
tury ago  Greece  was  liberated  from  a Turkish  tyranny 
centuries  old,  during  which  time  her  language  had  lost  much 


98 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[280 

of  its  strength  and  beauty.  The  modern  Greeks  do  not 
speak  the  same  language  as  did  Pericles ; they  speak  a 
language  which  has  been,  by  a gradual  dev^elopment,  derived 
from  the  classic  Greek.  Still  they  did  not  yield  it,  shorn  of 
its  glory  though  it  was,  to  the  language  of  their  Moslem  con- 
querors. Ancient  classic  Greek  may  be  likened  to  the  clas- 
sical languages  of  the  Hindus,  and  the  modern  language  of 
Athens  to  the  ruling  vernaculars  of  India,  which,  though  not 
Sanskrit,  are  some  of  them  derived  from  it.  Our  analogy 
^ between’the  languages  of  Greece  and  India  holds 
place  of  Indian  good  in  fact.  While  English  is  being  studied  by 
a little  over  1 1 per  cent,  of  the  pupils  in  public 
institutions,  and  the  classical  languages,  Sanskrit,  Arabic  and 
Persian,  by  about  8 per  cent.,  the  Vernaculars  are  being 
studied  by  no  less  than  97  per  cent.  In  one  year,  of  about 

5.000  books  issued  from  the  presses  of  India,  550  were 
written  in  English,  725  in  classical  languages,  and  over 

3.000  in  the  vernaculars.  It  thus  appears  that  there  is  little 
likelihood  of  English  supplanting  the  classics  as  the  literary 
language  of  India,  or  of  its  becoming  the  every-day  speech 
of  the  millions,  who  often  live  and  die  without  even  having 
heard  the  language  of  their  rulers.  Aside  from  the  fact  of 
numbers,  there  are  many  circumstances  which  augment  this 
probability.  The  natural  objects,  the  tn  es,  the  animals,  the 
implements,  the  social  order,  are  too  different  to  admit  of 
easy  transition  from  one  language  to  another.  On  every 
ground,  it  seems  scarcely  possible  that  English  should  ever 
be  anything  more  in  India  than  was  Greek  in  ancient  Rome. 

Moral  and  Religious  There  is  Still  another,  and  a far  more  ser 
Instruction.  Jous  problem,  which  we  must  recognize,  and 
the  discussion  of  which  we  enter  upon  with  hesitancy,  be- 
cause of  the  delicacy  of  treatment  required.  The  place  of 
moral  and  religious  instruction  in  a State  system  of  education 
has  always  been  a question  of  deep  concern  and  of  difficult 


99 


2 8 1 ] PR  OB  LEMS  OF  NA  TIONAL  DE  VEL  0PM ENT 

solution.  It  has  led  also  to  the  adoption  of  widely  differing 
policies. 

Ancient  and  Mediae.  Greece  and  Rome  religion  became  a func- 

vai  Systems.  tion  of  the  State,  and  closely  allied  with  their 
educational  systems.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Church  and 
State  coalesced  and  formed  so  intimate  a union  that  the 
domain  of  each  was  entered  by  the  other.  During  nearly 
1500  years,  the  religious  influence  was  above  every  other. 
Religion  taught  the  other  branches  of  civilization  to  speak 
its  language.  Philosophy,  science,  art  and  politics  were  all 
permeated  with  religious  theology.  Their  motives  became 
religious.  But,  finally,  a differentiation  took  place,  and  men 
began  to  distinguish  between  the  things  of  Caesar  and  the 
things  of  God.  The  School,  which  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  the  creation  of  the  Church,  has,  in  most  countries, 
passed  into  the  control  of  the  Civil  Government,  and  there  has 
been  a consequent  declension  in  the  emphasis  placed  upon 
the  religious  element  in  education. 

Modern  attitude  of  the  present  day  towards  religious 

System,  instructiou  is  very  divided.  In  Germany  and  France 
we  see  the  working  of  two  diametrically  opposed  policies. 
In  the  former  religious  instruction  is  as  definitely  prescribed 
by  law  as  in  the  latter  it  is  excluded.  This  may  not  be  so 
surprising,  as  these  nations  represent  two  different  races, 
which  have  always  been,  more  or  less,  in  antagonism.  But 
it  is  not  so  with  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  who  are 
people  of  the  same  race.  And,  yet  here,  again,  we  see  wide 
differences  of  policy.  For,  in  England,  education  has  always 
been  largely  carried  on  under  religious  auspices,  and,  at  the 
present  time,  the  controversy  over  the  participation  of  the 
Church  in  education  is  a dominant  political  issue.  In  the 
United  States,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  a complete  separa- 
tion of  the  Church  and  State,  and  the  practical  exclusion  of 
definite  religious  instruction. 


100 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[282 

The  Indian  ^^Y ^ general,  that  the  secondary  aim  of 

System,  educatioii  in  Europe  has  been  to  produce  gentlemen 
and  Christians.  In  India  religion  has,  for  twenty-five  cen- 
turies, sanctified  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  as  the  path  to 
liberation  from  the  world,  and  absorption  in  God.  When  the 
English  undertook  the  education  of  India,  the  folly  of  Govern- 
ment interference  with  the  religion  of  the  Hindus  was  gener- 
ally conceded,  and  they  bound  themselves,  by  repeated 
pledges,  to  the  maintenance  of  religious  neutrality.  This 
principle,  asserted  by  all  the  great  Governors  of  India, 
solemnly  proclaimed  in  the  great  Despatch  of  1854,  and  reit- 
erated in  the  Recommendations  of  the  Education  Commission 
of  1882,"  was  regarded  by  the  Hindus  as  the  great  safeguard 
of  their  liberties.  But  the  principle  cut  both  ways.  Stripped 
of  all  secondary  and  ulterior  aims.  Government  e^i^ation 
was  confined  to  the  primary  object  of  conveying  knowledge. 

The  place  of  Herbert  Spencer  asserts,  education  is 

Moral  Training,  training  for  completeness  of  life,  one  of  its  pri- 
mary elements  is  religion.  A complete  man  is  not  one 
whose  mind  alone  is  active,  but  he  is  a complete  man  who 
is  alive  in  all  his  faculties.  And  who  will  deny  to  man,  and 
to  the  Hindus  above  many  others,  the  possession  of  the  re- 
ligious faculty?  If  an  educational  system  be  established  on 
a basis  which  excludes  this  religious  element,  the  result  will, 
inevitably,  be  a deterioration  of  the  highest  national  type, 
and  the  loss  of  the  finer  qualities  which  are  the  safeguards 
of  purity  and  unselfish  conduct.  Both  physical  and  intel- 
lectual education  are,  in  a large  measure,  practical;  but,  in 
the  third  element  of  education,  the  will  training,  we  enter 
upon  the  social  development  of  man.  The  natural  starting 
point  of  social  culture  is  the  family,  but  morality  is  its  true 
essence.  The  chief  principles  of  morality  are  duty,  virtue  and 
the  exercise  of  conscience,  and  education  must  lay  stress  on 

^ Resolution  25. 


283] 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


lOI 


The  Weakness 

of  the  tirely  sound  educational  theory  has 

Indian  System. 


the  truth  that  nothing  has  so  much  value  as  will  guided  by  the 
Conduct  and  seuse  of  duty.  The  actualizing  of 

Character,  duty  is  virtuc,  and  the  result  of  the  practice  of  vir- 
tue is  the  development  of  character.  The  education  which 
trains  the  mind  is  eminently  desirable,  but  that  which  forms 
the  character  is  indispensable.  The  essential  element  in 
human  life  is  conduct,  and  conduct  springs  from  what  we 
believe  quite  as  much  as,  if  not  more  than,  from  what  we 
know. 

right  here,  what  we  believe  to  be  an  en- 

its  applica- 
tion to  the  system  adopted  in  India.  The 
elevation  of  the  Hindu  character  is  admitted  by  intelligent 
Hindus,  no  less  than  by  Englishmen,  to  be  a prime  necessity. 
The  failure  of  the  educational  system  to  do  this,  to  instill  in 
them  our  commanding  sense  of  duty,  to  lead  them  to  a 
practical  adoption  of  the  virtues  of  morality,  in  a word,  to 
give  them  such  moral  strength  as  is  possessed  by  the  nations 
of  Europe  after  long  centuries  of  religious  instruction,  this 
failure  gives  countenance  to  Tke  Spectator' s characterization 
of  the  culture  of  English-speaking  Hindus.  The  religion  of 
the  Hindus  is,  for  the  educated,  a philosophy,  and  for  the 
ignorant,  a system  of  observances,  admitting  in  both  cases, 
it  is  true,  the  conception  of  devotion  to  a God.  But  it  has 
no  definite  scheme  of  morals  and  no  religious  books  in 
which  the  moral  element  holds  the  highest  place.  Thus 
custom,  and  especially  the  customs  of  caste,  were  practically 
the  sole  support  and  authority  for  the  morality  of  Brah- 
manism. 

Wes«r„  Learning  and  Along  with  the  dissolution  of  many  ancient 
Ancient  Standards,  customs  which  English  rule  and  western 
learning  brought  about,  the  customary  morality  received  a 
grievous  shock.  To  learn  that  the  world  was  not  made  ex- 
clusively for  the  Brahmans,  that  the  earth  was  not  made  of 


102 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA 


[284 

concentric  rings,  with  India  at  the  centre,  and  that  it  does 
not  rest  on  the  back  of  a tortoise,  could  not  but  have  the 
result  of  shaking  belief  in  many  other  vain  theories  of  the 
world  and  of  life.  Elementary  science  taught  that,  whatever 
might  be  the  power  of  the  Brahman,  he  could  not  make 
water  boil  at  any  other  temperature  than  that  at  which  it 
naturally  boils,  and  that  a million  repetitions  of  the  names 
of  their  gods  will  not  create  a good  crop  without  cultivation, 
or  keep  epidemics  away  from  unsanitary  homes.  This  de- 
cay of  old  influences  led,  among  the  classes  affected  by  con- 
tact with  the  English,  to  a certain  weakening  of  the  moral 
sense,  such  as  it  was.  The  present  condition  of  the  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  her  Indian  subjects,  alien  in  race  and  in 
religion,  in  sympathies  and  in  aspirations,  imposes  a re- 
sponsibility upon  England,  the  magnitude  of  which  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  appreciate.  A Hindu  gentleman  of 
keen  intelligence,  recently  returned  from  a trip  to  England 
during  the  Jubilee  celebrations  in  London,  said  that  the 
thought  that  impressed  him  most  was  the  moral  responsi- 
bility of  England  toward  her  Colonies  and  Dependencies. 
Intellectual  progress  has  outstripped  moral  progress  in 
India,  and  the  bonds  of  ancient  tradition  and  of  religious 
sanction  have  been  abruptly  snapped.  A generation  is 
growing  up  in  India  of  young  men  who  have  no  deep 
religious  convictions,  no  fixed  moral  principles,  no  well- 
defined  ideals  of  conduct,  “ no  landmark  on  earth,  and  no 
lode-star  in  heaven.”  The  ancient  Hindu  ideals  exist  no 
longer,  if  ever,  as  a moral  dynamic  in  ordinary  life.  “ It  is 
philosophy,  not  food.” 

Necessity  for  ^ keenly  intelligent  and  observing  Eng- 
Reiigiousjnstruction.  Hshman,  who  has  lived  many  years  in  India, 
and  moved  freely  among  the  educated  classes,  has  recently 
sent  out  this  solemn  warning:  “ Our  Indian  education  is  cre- 
ating an  immense  class  for  whom  it  has  largely  loosened  the 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


103 


285] 

authority  and  obligation  of  the  past,  and  who,  with  quickened 
intellectual  capacities,  crave  for  a career  which  we  cannot 
afford  to  open,  for  lack  of  that  moral  fibre  with  which  we 
have  failed  to  supply  them,  in  the  place  of  what  they  have 
lost.  Such  a situation  is  charged  with  peril ; and  it  cannot 
possibly  stop  there.  We  must  go  on  to  furnish  those  moral 
and  spiritual  forces  which  alone  can  supplement  and  justify 
the  education.  Our  statesmen  have  reached  the  limit  of 
their  powers,  and  a stupendous  task  confronts  us.”" 

Missionary  met,  ill  part,  by  the  large  number  of 

Education,  schools  and  colleges  supported  by  missionary  soci- 
eties, which  form,  as  we  have  seen,  so  important  a part  of  the 
educational  system  of  India,  and  wherein  religious  instruc- 
tion is  an  essential  feature  of  the  daily  curriculum.  That 
this  demand  for  moral  training  exists,  and  that  the  oppor- 
tunity for  it  is  appreciated,  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  these 
missionary  institutions  are  so  largely  attended  by  non  Chris- 
tian Hindus,  notwithstanding,  and  possibly,  in  part,  because 
of  the  definite  daily  instruction  in  the  Christian  religion, 
with  the  Bible  as  text-book ; and  this  when  ample  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  for  attending  schools  under  Government 
and  Hindu  auspices,  where  no  religious  instruction  is  gfven. 

State  these  are  Private  institutions  receiving  aid 

Institutions,  from  Govemment.  So  far  as  Public  institutions 
are  concerned,  perhaps  the  most  advanced  position  taken,  in 
regard  to  this  important  element  in  education,  by  the  most 
thoughtful  administrators  in  India,  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
words  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Allahabad  University,  whose 
address  has  been  frequently  referred  to : 

“ I agree  with  those  who  think  that  education  should, 
from  the  beginning,  be  combined  with  religious  teaching; 
but  the  difficulty  is  to  effect  that  combination  in  India.  The 
Government  must  observe  an  attitude  of  strict  neutrality  in 
" Rev.  T.  E.  Slater,  Paper  prepared  for  the  Centenary  of  the  L.  M.  S.,  1895. 


104 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


[286 

all  religious  matters,  and  it  would  be  impossible  for  its  edu- 
cational officers  to  impart  religious  instruction  in  its  schools 
and  colleges.  The  only  satisfactory  solution  to  the  problem, 
in  my  opinion,  lies  in  the  extension  of  the  principle  of 
grants-in-aid,  the  establishment,  by  independent  managers 
and  associations,  of  schools  and  colleges  in  which  religious 
instruction  can  be  freely  given  hand  in  hand  with  secular 
education.  The  State,  looking  only  to  the  quality  of  sec- 
ular instruction,  should  assist  such  of  them  as  ask  for  assist- 
ance, either  by  contributions  of  money,  or  by  some  other 
suitable  kind  of  recognition.  This  system  seems  to  me  to 
afford  the  only  solution  of  the  problem  of  how  religion  can 
be  united  with  secular  education  in  this  country.”  ^ 

Other  questions  There  arc  many  other  questions  of  great  im- 
under  discussion  portance  to  the  developing  educational  life  of 
n la.  and  which  are  discussed  with  deep  inter- 

est in  that  country.  We  can  only  mention  them  here. 

„ ^ Reforms  in  University  education,  with 

University  Education,  special  reference  to  examinations,  are  being 
very  warmly  and  generally  agitated.  The  establishment  of  an 
“Imperial  Institute,”  looking  to  the  provision  of  a teaching 
staff,  and  a large  University  plant,  with  a distinct  view  to 
original  research,  has  been  recently  made  possible  by  the 
munificent  endowment  of  a wealthy  and  intelligent  Indian 
gentleman. 

, , The  development  of  technical  and  indus- 

lechnical  and  ^ 

Industrial  Education,  tpjai  educatioii  is  prcsscd  by  many  in  au- 
thority, who  see  in  it  a means  to  the  utilization  of  the  large 
mineral  and  agricultural  resources  of  the  country,  and  to  a 
removal  of  much  of  the  poverty  which  so  cripples  the  people. 

The  wider  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the 

Primary  Education 

for  non-caste  Spreading  of  the  beneficent  results  that  flow 
Classes.  amoiig  the  masses  of  the  lower,  or 

^ The  Educational  Review  of  India,  A.^x\\,  189;, 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


105 


287] 

Panchamma,  classes,  who  compose  one-sixth  of  the  pop- 
ulation, and  who  are  entirely  without  the  great  caste 
divisions  of  the  country,  is  an  extension  of  the  educational 
system  especially  urged  by  the  missionaries  in  Southern 
India,  and  supported  by  many  in  authority  in  the  Govern- 
ment. The  Honourable  Mr.  D.  Duncan,  D.  SC.,  LL.  D.,  the 
Director  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  is 
bringing  his  long  and  distinguished  career  in  India  to  a con- 
clusion by  a very  judicious  leadership  in  the  development  of 
this  most  important  movement. 

Female  Education  Female  education  is  being  agitated  among 
the  Hindus,  and  pressed  both  by  missionaries 
and  the  Departments  of  Education  alike,  in  order  to  the  en- 
largement of  the  social  and  intellectual  life,  now  so  limited 
by  the  restrictions  placed  upon  the  women  of  that  country. 
The  Inspectresses  of  Girls’  Schools,  by  their  untiring  and 
wisely  directed  efforts,  have  done  much  for  this  cause. 

Long  as  it  may  have  seemed  in  the  telling,  the 
history  of  British  education  in  India  is  not  without 
its  interest.  The  reaction  of  the  West  on  the  East  and  the 
revival  of  peoples  everywhere  visible  in  Japan,  in  India,  and 
even  in  China,  is  a phenomenon  as  remarkable  as  any  in 
history.  In  India,  where  a social  order  has  been  based  for 
2000  years  on  a deep  philosophy,  the  study  of  this  revival 
cannot  be  without  attraction  for  those  who  are  observing  the 
tendencies  of  the  time.  A primitive  society  has  suddenly 
awakened  to  find  itself  face  to  face  with  an  enemy  it  is 
powerless  to  resist.  The  modern  world,  where  it  does  not 
absorb,  destroys.  In  the  East,  British  Education  is  an  agent 
at  once  destructive  and  constructive.  But,  whatever  may  be 
the  future  of  the  English  connection  with  India,  it  is,  at  any 
rate,  certain,  to  use  again  the  words  of  the  great  Reformer 
Wilberforce,  that  ‘‘  by  planting  her  language,  her  knowledge, 
and  her  opinions  in  her  Asiatic  territories,  she  has  put  a 
great  work  beyond  the  reach  of  contingencies.” 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


io6 


[288 


The  ideas  which  have  been  introduced  cannot  be  ineffect- 
ive among  a people  so  interested  in  intellectual  questions 
as  are  the  Hindus.  They  cannot  but  germinate,  and  finally 
change  the  whole  face  of  Indian  society.  The  present  is 
strong  and  practical.  The  future  must  share  many  of  its 
characteristics. 


BIBI^IOORAF^HY. 


1.  Adam,  W.  Report  to  Government  of  India  on  Education  in  India. 

2.  Chamberlain.  Things  Japanese.  Buddhistic  Education.  Pp.  71, 123. 

3.  Chicago  International  Congress  of  Education,  1893.  P* 

4.  Copleston.  Buddhism  in  Ceylon.  Ch.  i,  3,  18,  29,  31. 

5.  Great  Britain.  Parliamentary  Blue  Books,  East  India  Affairs.  Reports  1812, 

’32-52. 

6.  De  Valbezen.  The  English  and  India. 

7.  Hopkins.  The  Religions  of  India. 

8.  Hunter.  A Study  in  Indian  Administration. 

9.  Hunter.  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  People.  Ch.  v. 

10.  Hunter.  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India.  Vol.  vi.,  ch.  i,  3,  4,  16. 

11.  India.  Progress  of  Education.  Quinquennial  Reports,  1887-92  and  1892-97, 

12.  India.  Report  of  Education  Commission,  1882. 

13.  India.  Moral  and  Material  Progress  of  the  People  of  India. 

14.  Johnston.  General  Council  on  Education  in  India. 

15.  Johnston.  Our  Educational  Policy  in  India. 

16.  Lanman.  A Sanskrit  Reader.  Notes  p.  295. 

17.  Laurie.  Pre-Christian  Education. 

18.  Lethbridge.  High  Education  in  India. 

19.  Madras.  Educational  Rules. 

20.  Madras,  Grant-in-Aid  Code. 

21.  Madras.  Progress  of  Education.  Quinquennial  Report,  1892-97. 

22.  Monier-Williams.  Indian  Wisdom. 

23.  Satthianadhan.  History  of  Education  in  the  Madras  Presidency. 

24.  Thomas.  British  Education  in  India. 

25.  Trevelyan.  Education  in  India. 

26.  Whitney.  A Sanskrit  Grammar.  Introduction. 

PERIODICALS. 

1.  Dublin  Review.  October,  1896.  An  Experiment  in  Education. 

2.  Journal  of  Statistical  Society.  June,  1894.  Condition  and  Prospects  of 

Popular  Education  in  India. 

3.  Journal  of  Statistical  Society.  June,  1883.  Education  in  India  and  the 

Indian  Commission. 

4.  Missionary  Review.  December,  1898.  The  Educated  Classes  of  India. 

289]  107 


PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


05 


287] 

Panchamma,  classes,  who  compose  one-sixth  of  the  pop- 
ulation, and  who  are  entirely  without  the  great  caste 
divisions  of  the  country,  is  an  extension  of  the  educational 
system  especially  urged  by  the  missionaries  in  Southern 
India,  and  supported  by  many  in  authority  in  the  Govern- 
ment. The  Honourable  Mr.  D.  Duncan,  D.  SC.,  LL.  D.,  the 
Director  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  is 
bringing  his  long  and  distinguished  career  in  India  to  a con- 
clusion by  a very  judicious  leadership  in  the  development  of 
this  most  important  movement. 

Female  education  is  being  agitated  among 

Female  Education. 

the  Hindus,  and  pressed  both  by  missionaries 
and  the  Departments  of  Education  alike,  in  order  to  the  en- 
largement of  the  social  and  intellectual  life,  now  so  limited 
by  the  restrictions  placed  upon  the  women  of  that  country. 
The  Inspectresses  of  Girls’  Schools,  by  their  untiring  and 
wisely  directed  efforts,  have  done  much  for  this  cause. 

Long  as  it  may  have  seemed  in  the  telling,  the 

Conclusion,  British  education  in  India  is  not  without 

its  interest.  The  reaction  of  the  West  on  the  East  and  the 
revival  of  peoples  everywhere  visible  in  Japan,  in  India,  and 
even  in  China,  is  a phenomenon  as  remarkable  as  any  in 
history.  In  India,  where  a social  order  has  been  based  for 
2000  years  on  a deep  philosophy,  the  study  of  this  revival 
cannot  be  without  attraction  for  those  who  are  observing  the 
tendencies  of  the  time.  A primitive  society  has  suddenly 
awakened  to  find  itself  face  to  face  with  an  enemy  it  is 
powerless  to  resist.  The  modern  world,  where  it  does  not 
absorb,  destroys.  In  the  East,  British  Education  is  an  agent 
at  once  destructive  and  constructive.  But,  whatever  may  be 
the  future  of  the  English  connection  with  India,  it  is,  at  any 
rate,  certain,  to  use  again  the  words  of  the  great  Reformer 
Wilberforce,  that  “ by  planting  her  language,  her  knowledge, 
and  her  opinions  in  her  Asiatic  territories,  she  has  put  a 
great  work  beyond  the  reach  of  contingencies.” 


EDUCA  TION  IN  INDIA 


106 


[288 


The  ideas  which  have  been  introduced  cannot  be  ineffect- 
ive among  a people  so  interested  in  intellectual  questions 
as  are  the  Hindus.  They  cannot  but  germinate,  and  finally 
change  the  whole  face  of  Indian  society.  The  present  is 
strong  and  practical.  The  future  must  share  many  of  its 
characteristics. 


BIBI^IOORAF^HY. 


1.  Adam,  W.  Report  to  Government  of  India  on  Education  in  India. 

2.  Chamberlain.  Things  Japanese.  Buddhistic  Education.  Pp.  71, 123. 

3.  Chicago  International  Congress  of  Education,  1893. 

4.  Copleston.  Buddhism  in  Ceylon.  Ch.  i,  3,  18,  29,  31. 

5.  Great  Britain.  Parliamentary  Blue  Books,  East  India  Affairs.  Reports  1812, 

’32-52. 

6.  De  Valbezen.  The  English  and  India. 

7.  Hopkins.  The  Religions  of  India. 

8.  Hunter.  A Study  in  Indian  Administration. 

9.  Hunter.  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  People.  Ch.  v. 

10.  Hunter.  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India.  Vol.  vi.,  ch.  i,  3,  4,  16. 

1 1.  India.  Progress  of  Education.  Quinquennial  Reports,  1887-92  and  1892-97, 

12.  India.  Report  of  Education  Commission,  1882. 

13.  India.  Moral  and  Material  Progress  of  the  People  of  India. 

14.  Johnston.  General  Council  on  Education  in  India. 

15.  Johnston.  Our  Educational  Policy  in  India. 

16.  Lanman.  A Sanskrit  Reader.  Notes  p.  295. 

17.  Laurie.  Pre-Christian  Education. 

18.  Lethbridge.  High  Education  in  India. 

19.  Madras.  Educational  Rules. 

20.  Madras.  Grant-in-Aid  Code. 

21.  Madras.  Progress  of  Education.  Quinquennial  Report,  1892-97. 

22.  Monier-Williams.  Indian  Wisdom. 

23.  Satthianadhan.  History  of  Education  in  the  Madras  Presidency. 

24.  Thomas.  British  Education  in  India. 

25.  Trevelyan.  Education  in  India. 

26.  Whitney.  A Sanskrit  Grammar.  Introduction. 

PERIODICALS. 

1.  Dublin  Review.  October,  1896.  An  Experiment  in  Education. 

2.  Journal  of  Statistical  Society.  June,  1894.  Condition  and  Prospects  of 

Popular  Education  in  India. 

3.  Journal  of  Statistical  Society.  June,  1883.  Education  in  India  and  the 

Indian  Commission. 

4.  Missionary  Review.  December,  1898.  The  Educated  Classes  of  India. 

289]  107 


Date  Due 


^ ■-? 

Ik 

jAm^ 

r 

LA1151.C44 
Education  in  India 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1 1012  00068  0936 


